Isabel Introzzi

Cognitive flexibility (CF), together with inhibition and working memory, is one of the main executive processes (Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Huizinga et al., 2006; Miyake et al., 2000). These processe...

Executive Functions play a significant role in the proper functioning of many relevant actions we take in our daily lives. Nowadays, many authors conceptualize Executive Functions as a multidimensional or non-unitary construct being Working Memory, Cognitive Flexibility and Inhibition the main executive processes considered. It is generally accepted that there are three main Inhibition processes: Perceptual Inhibition, Cognitive Inhibition and Response Inhibition, that differ by the level of representation and processing steps involved. A significant breakthrough has been made in the study and characterization of the main operational and functional aspects of executive processes and various types of inhibitors but there are no studies to our knowledge that have examined the connections between various execution processes, either in children or adults, taking into account the diverse inhibitory types. Therefore, this study’s primary goal is to analyze the functioning and relationships between different executive processes, including inhibitory processes. We assessed executive functions performance in 313 young individuals, between 17 and 20 years old, from Valencia (Spain). We tested two theoretical models: (1) one that suggests that working memory’s functioning is influenced by inhibitory processes, which in turn contributes to cognitive flexibility; and (2) a second theoretical model, in which inhibition and working memory are relatively separate processes and both contribute to cognitive flexibility. We found that Model 2 was the best fit presented. In the sample studied, inhibitory processes -but not working memory- contributed to cognitive flexibility performance. In this sense, Inhibitory processes studied (i.e. Perceptual Inhibition and Response Inhibition) showed to be independent of each other and with respect to working memory, evidencing some relationships between them (i.e. particularly found between perceptual inhibition and working memory). We believe that our findings could make a significant contribution to understanding the existing relationships between the primary executive functions, mostly by analyzing inhibition on a multidimensional approach, an issue that hasn’t been fully explored in previous research.

(analítico): La planificación implica la habilidad para identificar y organizar secuencias de acciones con el fin de alcanzar metas específicas. En la literatura se observan resultados dispares respecto de cuáles son los mejores predictores de esta capacidad en niños. Nuestro objetivo en este trabajo fue identificar en qué medida la voluntad de control, el control inhibitorio perceptual, la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida explican tal capacidad en niños que inician la educación primaria básica. La muestra estuvo conformada por 289 participantes de entre 6 y 7 años de edad.Los resultados indicaron que únicamente la inteligencia fluida y la memoria de trabajo se asociaban y explicaban la capacidad de planificar. Discutimos las implicaciones de estos resultados para el diseño de futuras investigaciones.

La inhibición cognitiva (IC) es importante para el desempeño en la niñez. Aún no se conoce qué variables se vinculan con la probabilidad de optimizarla a partir de intervenciones. Aquí se analizaron los efectos de un entrenamiento de la IC en escolares, a los 6 y a los 7 años, sobre el desempeño en tareas de IC, memoria de trabajo (MT) y razonamiento abstracto. Se indagó si variables como el desempeño cognitivo de base y características de la intervención se vinculan con los efectos del entrenamiento, en cada edad. Se aplicó un diseño experimental con un grupo experimental (GE, que recibió el entrenamiento) y control (GC) por edad, con pre y postest (donde se administraron tareas para evaluar IC, MT y razonamiento abstracto). Se trabajó con una muestra no probabilística de 65 escolares de dos instituciones educativas de Mar del Plata, Argentina. A los 6 años, el GE mostró mejoras del pre al postest en MT, Z = -2,99, p = 0,003. A los 7 años, los grupos difieren en el postest en IC, Z = -2,15, p = 0,033, y el GE presentó mejoras del pre al postest en razonamiento abstracto, Z = -2,83, p = 0,005, Solo a los 7 años los efectos se vinculan con el desempeño de base en la tarea de IC. Los efectos son bajos y diferenciales por edad. Se discute sobre el desarrollo de estrategias de evaluación e intervención específicas por edad. Se aporta evidencia parcial a la hipótesis de compensación y variabilidad individual.

Theoretical frameworks suggest that cognitive inhibition suppresses irrelevant information in working memory, preventing overload and promoting the processing of task-relevant information. Consequently, it may also contribute to more complex skills, such as abstract reasoning, by facilitating the retention and processing of patterns and relationships. However, empirical evidence does not consistently show these relationships in early elementary school years. This study aims to examine the validity of the following theoretical proposition: cognitive inhibition is a fundamental process that influences working memory, and both contribute to abstract reasoning in children aged 6–8 years. The final sample included 293 schoolchildren from 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades, who completed tasks measuring cognitive inhibition, working memory, and reasoning. Age was also considered in the analyses. The main results indicate that age is associated with improvements in working memory and reasoning (explaining 19% of the variance), but not with cognitive inhibition performance. Additionally, cognitive inhibition directly contributes to working memory (explaining 19% of the variance), and working memory, but not cognitive inhibition, contributes to abstract reasoning (the model explains 23% of the variance). No indirect effects were found. We discuss the importance of incorporating specific relationships between cognitive skills at different developmental stages into theoretical and practical proposals.

Los procesos inhibitorios -inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta- son funciones ejecutivas principales y se las entiende como procesos de dominio general. En nuestro medio se han desarrollado tareas con el objeto de optimizarlos y, eventualmente, generar un impacto en habilidades relacionadas, que se han puesto a prueba de manera aislada. Aquí se pretende aplicarlas conjuntamente, conformando un programa global de entrenamiento inhibitorio destinado a escolares de los primeros años del nivel primario, y analizar sus efectos sobre el desempeño en matemáticas. Se trabajó con 25 estudiantes en un diseño experimental, con un grupo experimental (de entrenamiento), uno de control, un pre-test y un post-test. El entrenamiento implicó la ejecución de tareas diseñadas para demandar inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta, a lo largo de seis sesiones de 10-15 minutos. En las instancias pre y post-test, todos los participantes fueron evaluados en su capacidad inhibitoria y en el desempeño en matemáticas. Los principales resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas entre grupos en el post-test, aunque a nivel intragrupal, solo el grupo experimental cambió significativamente su rendimiento del pre al post-test en el desempeño en una tarea de restas sucesivas, Z = -2.69, p = .007, r = -.69, observándose diferencias marginales en las otras actividades (p > .05). Considerando el rendimiento en el pre-test, se encontraron relaciones entre el desempeño en restas y procesos inhibitorios (ps < .05). Se discute en torno al alcance del estudio piloto y la importancia de considerar en futuros trabajos el tamaño de los grupos y los instrumentos de evaluación. Se sugiere que, en esta etapa, la realización de restas puede implicar mayor demanda ejecutiva -específicamente de los procesos inhibitorios. Inhibitory processes - perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition - are core executive functions and domain-general processes. Training tasks have been developed in order to optimize them, and eventually generate an impact on related skills. These tasks have been tested in isolation. Thus, here a global inhibitory training program was formed (with these training tasks), and their effects on performance in mathematics were analyzed, in schoolchildren in the first years of primary school. The sample was made up of 25 students, an experimental design, with an experimental group (training), a control group, a pre-test and a post-test, was applied. The training involved the execution of tasks designed to demand perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition, over six 10-15 minute sessions. In the pre- and post-test instances, all participants were evaluated on their inhibitory capacity and mathematics performance. The main results did not show significant differences between groups in the post-test, although at the intragroup level, only the experimental group significantly changed, their performance from pre to post-test on a task that requires successive subtractions, Z = -2.69, p = .007, r = -.69, observing marginal differences in the other mathematics activities (ps > .05). Considering performance in the pre-test, relationships were found between subtraction performance and inhibitory processes (ps < .05). The scope of the pilot study and the importance of considering the size of the groups and the evaluation instruments in future work are discussed. It is suggested that, at this stage, performing subtractions may imply greater executive demand - specifically inhibitory processes.

In this study, a modified variant of the Affective Simon Task (De Houwer & Eelen, 1998) was used in children and adolescents. Thus, we designed a task in which the participants had to respond choosing a happy or sad face depending on whether the figure presented on the screen was an object or an animal, ignoring its affective valence (positive or negative). Our results showed that the Affective Simon effect was produced only in the children group. Likewise, it was found that performance improved with age, which indicates an improvement of the processes involved in the resolution of the Affective Simon effect. The results of this study are a first exploratory approach to the investigation of the Affective Simon effect in children and young populations.

Antecedentes: distintos autores indican que las actitudes hacia las matemáticas, las funciones ejecutivas y el conocimiento matemático previo representan variables centrales en el aprendizaje de esta asignatura; no obstante, no se dispone de evidencia respecto a su contribución conjunta y relativa para la predicción del desempeño en matemáticas en estudiantes de nivel secundario. Objetivo general: analizar la contribución de la competencia percibida, el gusto por las matemáticas, las funciones ejecutivas y el conocimiento previo en la predicción del desempeño en matemáticas en estudiantes de primer y segundo año del nivel secundario. Método: participaron 178 estudiantes de los primeros años de secundaria (edad M = 13.4 años, DE = .32; 45.5% varones). Resultados: se halló que el conjunto de variables explicó el 49% de la varianza en el desempeño en matemáticas, siendo la competencia percibida, el gusto por las matemáticas y la memoria de trabajo predictores significativos. No se hallaron diferencias en la fuerza de la relación de la memoria de trabajo con el desempeño en matemáticas entre los años escolares analizados. Conclusiones: los aspectos actitudinales evaluados y la memoria de trabajo representan variables de importancia para predecir el desempeño en matemáticas en el nivel secundario. Contribución de autoríaTodos los autores aportaron en todos los aspectos del trabajo.

The aim of this study was to analyze the joint, relative, and unique predictive value of students’ prior knowledge of mathematics (knowledge of fractions and ability to divide natural numbers) and general cognitive ability (fluid intelligence and working memory) upon general mathematics achievement in the last year of primary school. Seventy-five students participated (M age = 11.2 years old, SD = 0.40). Hierarchical regression analysis showed that the ability to divide and fractions knowledge accounted for 41% of the variance in mathematics achievement, both acting as significant predictors. By incorporating working memory and fluid intelligence into the model, fraction knowledge showed to be no longer a significant predictor. These general cognitive skills explained an additional 8% of the variance in mathematics knowledge, both being significant predictors and contributing to mathematics achievement in a unique way. The implications of these results for mathematics teaching are discussed.