Gregory A. Lewbart

Pradofloxacin is approved orally for dogs and cats and parenterally for cattle and pigs in the U.S. The objective was to determine the pharmacokinetics of pradofloxacin in loggerhead turtles ( Caretta caretta ) and whether the plasma concentration is sufficient to treat susceptible bacteria. Pradofloxacin (200 mg/mL, diluted to 20 mg/mL in sterile saline) 10 mg/kg was administered SC and IV to 16 yearling loggerhead turtles with sparse sampling blood collection. Plasma concentrations were measured via high‐pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed with nonlinear mixed effects modeling. After SC administration, the peak plasma concentration ( C _MAX ) was 9.31 μg/mL and the elimination half‐life was 1.2 h, with bioavailability greater than 100%. After IV administration, the elimination half‐life was 1.3 h, systemic clearance was 0.74 L/kg/h, and volume of distribution was 1.36 L/kg. Pradofloxacin was tolerated IV and SC and well absorbed SC. Despite favorable absorption and C _MAX values, the clearance was faster, and half‐life shorter, than other fluoroquinolones in turtles and pradofloxacin in mammals. These concentrations may not be sufficient to reach pharmacokinetic‐pharmacodynamic targets (AUC/MIC) for treating gram‐positive and gram‐negative bacteria in the susceptibility category of < 0.25 μg/mL, according to clinical breakpoints approved by the Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute.

A 30.6 kg loggerhead sea turtle ( Caretta caretta ) presented with a 2–3‐week‐old deep head wound, left neck and right cubital lacerations, and carapace fractures. Haematology revealed a marked leukocytosis, with other values unremarkable. Initial wound‐cleaning, an antibiotic course, fluids and vitamin B supplementation were initiated. Computed tomography revealed calvarial and cranial vault fractures with possible olfactory bulb involvement. Anaesthesia was administered to debride the wound and stabilise the skull fracture using bone screws joined by epoxy putty. After additional antibiotic and pain medicine courses, the loggerhead sea turtle regained appetite, and the skull became stable, allowing for release less than 2 years later. This case report highlights the ability of sea turtles to survive severe head injuries with medical and surgical management.

Candidatus (Ca.) Allocryptoplasma is a newly identified, genetically diverse genus of vector-borne bacteria closely related to established blood-borne zoonotic pathogens, including Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Neoehrlichia species. Ca. Allocryptoplasma is a globally distributed pathogen detected across taxonomically diverse tick species and varied ecological niches. It maintains a complex enzootic circulation involving multiple vertebrate classes, including birds, small mammals, primates, and particularly reptiles, which serve as reservoir hosts. Methods: To characterize this emerging agent, multi-locus genetic DNA sequence analyses using the maximum likelihood method were performed on 16S rRNA, sucA, and rpoB genes amplified from the blood and vectors of marine iguanas and lizard species sampled across multiple islands in the Galápagos archipelago. Results: The compiled genomic data demonstrate that the Ca. Allocryptoplasma detected in the Galápagos lizards and marine iguanas represents a distinct lineage and a novel Ca. Allocryptoplasma species. Conclusions: Given its broad host plasticity, widespread geographic footprint, and vector-mediated transmission, the potential of Ca. Allocryptoplasma as a hidden, emerging zoonotic blood pathogen warrants intensive further evaluation.

Migration is a widespread phenomenon across taxa, yet the ecological mechanisms underlying its evolution and maintenance, particularly whether migratory behaviors are primarily driven by access to spatially restricted breeding sites or by seasonal tracking of trophic resources, remain poorly documented outside birds and large mammals. Despite increasing evidence that reptiles perform seasonal migrations, the ecological mechanisms underlying these movements have rarely been formally tested. The critically endangered Galápagos pink land iguana ( Conolophus marthae ), endemic to Wolf Volcano, Isabela Island, exhibits partial migration along a steep altitudinal gradient, providing an opportunity to disentangle the relative roles of breeding-site availability, trophic resource dynamics, and thermoregulatory conditions as drivers of migration. We used GPS tracking data from 22 individuals (7 males, 15 females) monitored between 2019 and 2023, combined with high-resolution spatio-temporal models of vegetation productivity and air temperature across the species’ altitudinal range, to characterize population-level movement patterns and evaluate competing hypotheses explaining the evolution of this migratory behavior. Movement models revealed a clear pattern of partial migration: 16 out of 22 tracked individuals performed seasonal altitudinal movements between a restricted high-elevation mating area and a larger dispersal area at lower elevation, with males reaching the mating area approximately 48 days earlier than females. The dispersal area remained consistently more productive than the mating area throughout the year, rejecting the prediction that individuals should track the shifting trophic resource peaks. Instead, the mating season coincided with the local productivity peak within the mating area, whereas temperature differences between areas were small ( ca. 2°C) and did not explain migration timing. These results support a site-dependent hypothesis of partial migration over a resource-tracking hypothesis, indicating that access to spatially restricted breeding sites is the primary driver of migration in this species, with local trophic resource dynamics fine-tuning reproductive timing. Providing empirical evidence for the ecological mechanisms underlying migration in a large terrestrial reptile, our results extend site-dependent theories of migration beyond birds and mammals and identify breeding-site availability as a key ecological driver of migratory behaviors across taxa.

Green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas) are distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans and are increasingly exposed to anthropogenic pressures in coastal aquatic habitats. The health impacts of anthropogenic pressures on green sea turtles remain unknown. This study evaluated biochemical differences between two neighboring Ecuadorian populations of Eastern Pacific green turtles to assess potential links between habitat use, diet, and physiological conditions and to discuss the causes of significant deviations in biochemical values. Blood samples were collected from 24 individuals and analyzed in situ using an iSTAT ^® (Abbott Point-Of-Care) portable analyzer. Turtles sampled off the Ecuadorian mainland in Puerto López Bay, a site characterized by intensive commercial and recreational fishing activity, where turtles have been observed feeding on fishery discards, exhibited significantly increased levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and blood glucose, and elevated total protein compared to turtles sampled in the protected Wreck Bay area of the Galápagos Islands, an area, where the turtles feed primarily on algae. Elevated biochemical values likely reflect altered dietary composition associated with anthropogenic food sources and increased protein intake. These findings highlight the influence of human-mediated foraging on green turtle physiology and provide information relevant to the management of green turtle health.

Whole blood transfusions are an essential part of urgent care in mammals, yet standardized protocols for transfusions remain sparse in reptile medicine. Homologous transfusions are ideal, but viable donors from the same species are not always available. Heterologous transfusions may be an alternate avenue for reptiles. To minimize risks of transfusion reactions, crossmatching the donor and recipient is necessary to determine donor eligibility and recipient compatibility. This study assessed fresh heparinized venous blood samples from 22 clinically healthy Carolinian sliders, Trachemys scripta ssp. of two species (n = 11), and eastern box turtles, Terrapene carolina carolina (n = 11). Each turtle served as its own control and was randomly assigned in a crossmatch as the donor with an individual recipient of the other species. Among the tested donor–recipient species pairings, results indicated that a clinical blood transfusion from a Trachemys scripta spp. donor to an eastern box turtle recipient might have negligible detrimental effects, although the reciprocal was not the case.

Aim: This study aimed to test the effectiveness of a hierarchical, spatially explicit, Bayesian modelling framework combining Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation (INLA) with Stochastic Partial Differential Equation (SPDE) as an alternative to traditional Species Distribution Models (SDMs), particularly in cases where standard assumptions are violated, such as for small‐ranged, data‐limited species. Using the critically endangered Galápagos Pink Land Iguana ( Conolophus marthae ) as a case study, we also aimed to produce spatially explicit predictions to inform conservation strategies for this species. Location: The Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador. Methods: We applied the INLA‐SPDE model to address spatial autocorrelation in occurrence data, which is common when most observations originate from a limited number of surveys, as frequently happens with isolated, small‐ranged species of high conservation priority. The model was used to identify environmental drivers of occurrence and to map both the current and potential distribution of C. marthae . We evaluated the predictive performance of the model through spatial cross‐validation. Results: The model revealed that trophic resource availability, presence of open areas and terrain roughness are key factors limiting the distribution of C. marthae . Its current range was estimated at approximately 27 km ² , while around 330 km ² of suitable areas were identified across three main sites outside its known distribution. The model showed good predictive performance (Cohen's K = 0.68; TSS = 0.70), with consistent predictor effects across model runs. Main Conclusions: Our findings demonstrated the utility of the INLA‐SPDE approach in modelling distributions of small‐ranged species, overcoming limitations of classical SDMs. The results obtained provided the first formal estimate of the range of C. marthae and identified new suitable areas, constituting an essential starting point to evaluate a species translocation, a key conservation strategy outlined in the Conservation and Management Plan for this species.

The success rate of deposited and harvested chelonian hatchlings between 2010 and 2023 were retrospectively reviewed by the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine Turtle Rescue Team. These data were analyzed to determine factors that may influence hatchling success including species, month of incubation, mother's status upon arrival, and the mother's presenting complaint. This study includes all wild chelonian species found in North Carolina that have presented as adult, gravid females over a 13‐year period. These species include common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina ), painted turtles ( Chrysemys spp .), yellow‐bellied sliders ( Trachemys scripta scripta ), cooters ( Pseudemys spp.), eastern box turtles ( Terrapene carolina carolina ), eastern mud turtles ( Kinosternon subrubrum ), common musk turtles ( Sternotherus odoratus ), and red‐eared sliders ( Trachemys scripta elegans ). Overall, there were a total of 2453 chelonian eggs and of those, 954 (38.9%) hatched. The greatest egg count numbers were recorded from common snapping turtles (703/2453, 28.7%), eggs collected in May (1300/2453, 53.0%), eggs that were collected from patients euthanized on arrival (1084/2453, 44.2%), and eggs that came from mothers presenting for vehicular trauma (1891/2453, 77.1%). Trauma did not significantly impact overall hatch rates, except for snapping turtles with vehicle‐related injuries ( p = 2.53e‐08). Eastern Box Turtles had significantly lower hatch ratios ( p = 0.000157), while aquatic turtles, such as musk and yellow‐bellied sliders, fared better under current incubation protocols ( p = 0.079 and p = 0.062, respectively). Results of this study represent opportunities to improve hatchling success and rearing under human care by understanding the major factors that contribute to their success.

Despite the frequency of invertebrates in research, zoological, and personal collections, sedation and anesthesia in these species remains poorly studied. This study assessed anesthetic techniques in paper kite butterflies (Idea leuconoe). Thirty-six recently emerged butterflies were individually placed in 1.9 L air-tight containers and randomly exposed to one of six treatments (n = 6/group): 5% isoflurane via vaporizer (2 L min–1, fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) 1.0); (V), 0.5 mL (CB0.5) or 3.0 mL (CB3) liquid isoflurane on a cotton ball (FiO2 0.21); 100% carbon dioxide via flowmeter (2 L min–1) (CO2); cooling at 2.78°C, or no treatment (control) (CT). Three min (V, CB0.5, CB3, CO2) or 10 min (°C) following recumbency, butterflies were removed from exposure, manually manipulated, and monitored for return to upright posture. Times to recumbency, return to upright, and response to manipulation were recorded. Collected data were compared between groups (significance P < 0.05). Except in CT, all butterflies achieved recumbency. Median (range) time to recumbency was 1.3 (0.5–3.6), 2.8 (1.6–4.6), 1.7 (0.9–2.9), 1.2 (0.8–2.2), and 1.4 (1.0–3.5) min in V, CB0.5, CB3, CO2, and °C, respectively (P = 0.106). Median (range) time to upright was 9.3 (0.7–15.2), 13.8 (6.0–24.0), 14.9 (8.2–26.6), 1.3 (0.9–9.0), and 9.6 (3.6–30.0) min in V, CB0.5, CB3, CO2, and °C, respectively (P = 0.019). All butterflies recovered uneventfully. This is the first peer-reviewed evaluation of anesthetic techniques in butterflies.

The Galapagos pink iguana ( Conolophus marthae ) is endemic to Wolf Volcano on Isabela Island in the Galapagos archipelago. Due to its remote and hard-to-access habitat, the recently discovered and critically small wild population of the pink iguana has been extremely challenging to study. Herein we provide a first description of the morphology and behavior of six C. marthae hatchlings, and compare them with 12 hatchlings of the sympatric C. subcristatus . Morphometric measurements (snout–vent length = 10.9 ± 1.63 (SD) cm, tail length = 17.9 ± 3.05 cm, and weight = 47.8 ± 25.4 g) revealed a longer tail relative to its body size (ratio = 1.65 ± 0.23) compared to the sympatric Galápagos land iguana ( C. subcristatus ) hatchling of similar size (ratio = 1.42 ± 0.11). C. marthae hatchlings also displayed distinctive coloration with a bright green dorsal background with irregular black maculations and a pale, nearly unpigmented ventral surface. A comparative photograph of a subadult C. marthae revealed a directional, ontogenetic color shift: green dorsal areas became black while black maculations gave rise to pink patches, possibly a retained ancestral trait with implications for camouflage or signaling. These findings fill a knowledge gap in the early ecology of Galápagos pink iguana, providing information useful for monitoring recruitment in this Critically Endangered species.