Gregor Petrič

The reporting of phishing emails plays a critical role in enhancing organizational resilience to cyber threats. Timely reporting enables organizations to adapt dynamically to potential attacks, mitigating potential financial costs, and disruptions to business operations. While phishing susceptibility has been extensively examined in research, studies on the drivers and barriers to employees’ reporting of suspicious emails remain limited. Even fewer studies have examined how organizational processes and characteristics, particularly information security culture (ISC), shape this proactive protective behaviour. This study aims to investigate (a) how ISC factors—IS-supportive norms, the quality of IS-related communication, awareness and understanding of IS policies, IS knowledge, attitudes to IS, and sense of responsibility—influence the reporting of phishing emails and (b) whether the proposed research model exhibits cross-cultural structural equivalence. Data were collected via an online survey panel, sampling employees from medium and large organizations in Germany (n = 306), the UK (n = 205), and the USA (n = 506). A multigroup structural equation-modelling approach was employed to analyse the data. The findings highlight the pivotal role of IS-supportive norms, policy awareness, and knowledge in shaping employees’ attitudes and sense of responsibility, which, in turn, positively influence phishing email reporting. The quality of IS-related communication processes emerged as a complex and double-edged factor: while accessible and effective two-way communication fostered phishing email reporting, it simultaneously reduced employees’ sense of responsibility and led to less favourable attitudes towards IS. Overall, the ISC and phishing-reporting model demonstrated good cross-cultural stability. IS-supportive norms, communication quality, awareness of policies, and knowledge influence employees’ attitudes, sense of responsibility, and phishing reporting (directly or indirectly) consistently across countries. However, notable differences were also observed. For example, in Germany, attitudes towards IS were a stronger predictor of phishing reporting, whereas in the UK and USA, a sense of responsibility was more influential. The study advances the understanding of ISC as a determinant of phishing email reporting and offers practical recommendations for strengthening organizational strategies that promote reporting behaviour and improve resilience against cyber threats.

Digital service provision became necessary during and after the COVID-19 pandemic highlighting the technological disparity experienced by healthcare professionals and healthcare users. eHealth Literacy skills are mostly measured with the use of the eHeals, but recently more instruments have been developed to meet this need. The aim of the study was to validate and compare the two scales in Greek: the eHeals and the revised eHeals-Extended. In total, 401 participants replied to the eHeals, the revised eHeals-Extended, and the HLS-EU-Q16. The eHeals scales provided good psychometric properties. The validation of the eHeals confirmed the two dimensions with high internal consistency (total score α = .91, eHeals1 α = .88, eHeals2 α = .78). The revised eHeals-Extended exploratory analysis extracted five factors with satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .62-.89): awareness and quality of resources online, understanding online information, smart on the net, accessing and validating online information and perceived efficiency. The use of the revised eHeals-Extended and eHeals validated in Greek, could be valuable tools in clinical and research settings. The eHeals could be used as an additional tool when eHealth Literacy is not the core concept measured and the revised eHeals-Extended can be used when researchers wish to measure eHealth Literacy concept more thoroughly.

Background: Given the rapid proliferation and use of online health resources, many of which may be of dubious quality, there is an increasing need to develop electronic health literacy (e-health literacy) skills among the population of internet users. E-health literacy encompasses the skills and abilities needed to access, understand, validate, evaluate, interpret, and apply online health-related information. Measuring e-health literacy has become crucial for developing targeted interventions, assessing their impact, and producing high-quality research findings that can inform health policy and clinical practice, which can lead to improved health outcomes and potentially reducing health inequalities. The scales need to be valid and reliable so that decisions are based on high-quality data. In this regard, the issue of the measurement invariance of scales across different demographic groups has been neglected. This is critical, as assessments should be valid across different sociodemographic groups to avoid bias when comparing them. The aim of this study was to validate the Extended e-health literacy scale (eHEALS-E) on general population and investigate its structural validity and internal consistency, construct validity in terms of convergent and discriminant validity, and examine its measurement invariance across gender, age, education and social status. Methods: The data were collected as a part of a national health literacy survey conducted by the Slovenian National Institute of Public Health. For this survey the initial eHEALS-E scale was revised in order to address its limitations and applicability to general population. Based on a nationally representative sample, the final sample for the analysis comprised 1,944 individuals who at least occasionally used one of the various internet services to obtain health-related information. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the measurement invariance of the scale. Results: With some adjustments, the measurement model of the revised 6-dimensional eHEALS-E scale demonstrated a good fit to the data (χ² = 2508, df = 282, RMSEA = 0.064, SRMR = 0.070, CFI = 0.90). The scale had good internal consistency (alpha = 0.89). Although evidence of the scale’s convergent and discriminant validity was partially provided, the analysis revealed robust measurement invariance across sociodemographic groups. Conclusions: With a minor limitation, the scale ensures an unbiased e-health literacy assessment across different social groups, which is crucial for interventions that aim to reduce health-related social inequalities. This ensures that the interventions derived from the assessment of reality are equally valid and effective for everyone, regardless of their sociodemographic background.

Purpose: Expressing views on organizational information security (IS) by employees is vital for improving security processes, policies and trainings, while non-communication may conceal the true state of the human factor of IS and lead to security breaches. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the concept of opinion expressing about organizational IS, provide an explanatory model based on the theory of spiral of silence and offer its empirical validation. Design/methodology/approach: Data from a web-based survey among the employees of one the universities in the European Union (n = 504) was analyzed with regression analysis to investigate the proposed hypotheses. Findings: The study reveals that employees with positive opinions about IS will be more willing to share their opinions with coworkers and management. However, when employees perceive that their pro-IS opinions are not shared by other coworkers, they will remain silent, which increases the risk of problematic opinions spreading throughout the organization. Research limitations/implications: The study highlights the need to focus on the communication perspectives of organizational information security, an area often overlooked in the human factor of information security research. Practical implications: The results highlight the need to examine the gap between the dominant climate of opinion about IS in the organization and the display of compliant IS behaviors in order to strengthen IS endeavors. Organizations are encouraged to facilitate open dialogue about IS processes, policies and training and implement mechanisms for considering employees’ feedback in order to improve the organization’s IS. Originality/value: The study contributes to a growing body of research that moves beyond viewing employees merely as subjects of compliance, recognizing instead their agency in IS issues that can enhance organizational resilience. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to apply the spiral of silence theory in the IS field, thereby helping to overcome the lack of communication science perspectives in organizational IS research.

Research suggests that ChatGPT offers numerous affordances for students, who use it for various purposes, yet the field lacks quantitative studies that offer insight into a variety of students' actual uses of ChatGPT and their impact on academic performance. The main aims of this paper were (a) to introduce and validate a typology of students' ChatGPT uses, (b) to identify clusters of students with similar patterns of ChatGPT uses, and (c) to investigate the impact of ChatGPT uses on academic performance. An online survey research was conducted, which resulted in a typology of 10 distinct uses of ChatGPT and four distinct clusters of students. The strongest predictor of academic performance is information searching and explanation. Problematic use of ChatGPT, while resulting in improved grades, is found to be detrimental to competencies. Although the study might not fully represent the diversity of students' experiences across academic institutions, the typology offers a baseline for nuanced research and interventions pertaining to particular ChatGPT uses among students.

Objective: Informational social support is one of the main reasons for patients to visit online health communities (OHCs). Calls have been made to investigate the objective quality of such support in the light of a worrying number of inaccurate online health-related information. The main aim of this study is to conceptualize the Quality of Informational Social Support (QISS) and develop and test a measure of QISS for content analysis. A further aim is to investigate the level of QISS in cancer-related messages in the largest OHC in Slovenia and examine the differences among various types of discussion forums, namely, online consultation forums, online support group forums, and socializing forums. Methods: A multidimensional measurement instrument was developed, which included 20 items in a coding scheme for a content analysis of cancer-related messages. On a set of almost three million posts published between 2015 and 2019, a machine-learning algorithm was used to detect cancer-related discussions in the OHC. We then identified the messages providing informational social support, and through quantitative content analysis, three experts coded a random sample of 403 cancer-related messages for the QISS. Results: The results demonstrate a good level of interrater reliability and agreement for a QISS scale with six dimensions, each demonstrating good internal consistency. The results reveal large differences among the social support, socializing, and consultation forums, with the latter recording significantly higher quality in terms of accuracy (M = 4.48, P < .001), trustworthiness (M = 4.65, P < .001), relevance (M = 3.59, P < .001), and justification (M = 3.81, P = .05) in messages providing informational social support regarding cancer-related issues. Conclusions: This study provides the research field with a valid tool to further investigate the factors and consequences of varying quality of information exchanged in supportive communication. From a practical perspective, OHCs should dedicate more resources and develop mechanisms for the professional moderation of health-related topics in socializing forums and thereby suppress the publication and dissemination of low-quality information among OHC users and visitors.

Purpose: The concept of information security culture, which recently gained increased attention, aims to comprehensively grasp socio-cultural mechanisms that have an impact on organizational security. Different measurement instruments have been developed to measure and assess information security culture using survey-based tools. However, the content, breadth and face validity of these scales vary greatly. This study aims to identify and provide an overview of the scales that are used to measure information security culture and to evaluate the rigor of reported scale development and validation procedures. Design/methodology/approach: Papers that introduce a new or adapt an existing scale of information security culture were systematically reviewed to evaluate scales of information security culture. A standard search strategy was applied to identify 19 relevant scales, which were evaluated based on the framework of 16 criteria pertaining to the rigor of reported operationalization and the reported validity and reliability of the identified scales. Findings: The results show that the rigor with which scales of information security culture are validated varies greatly and that none of the scales meet all the evaluation criteria. Moreover, most of the studies provide somewhat limited evidence of the validation of scales, indicating room for further improvement. Particularly, critical issues seem to be the lack of evidence regarding discriminant and criterion validity and incomplete documentation of the operationalization process. Research limitations/implications: Researchers focusing on the human factor in information security need to reach a certain level of agreement on the essential elements of the concept of information security culture. Future studies need to build on existing scales, address their limitations and gain further evidence regarding the validity of scales of information security culture. Further research should also investigate the quality of definitions and make expert assessments of the content fit between concepts and items. Practical implications: Organizations that aim to assess the level of information security culture among employees can use the results of this systematic review to support the selection of an adequate measurement scale. However, caution is needed for scales that provide limited evidence of validation. Originality/value: This is the first study that offers a critical evaluation of existing scales of information security culture. The results have decision-making value for researchers who intend to conduct survey-based examinations of information security culture.

Background: The role of online health communities (OHCs) in patient empowerment is growing and has been increasingly studied in recent years. Research has focused primarily on individualistic conception of patients’ empowerment, with much less attention paid to the role of OHCs in the development of patients’ collective empowerment. Although OHCs have immense potential for empowerment that goes beyond the individual, the concept and scale of collective empowerment in OHCs have not yet been developed or validated.Objective: This study aimed to develop an instrument for measuring collective empowerment in online health communities (CE-OHC) and to test its quality by investigating its factorial structure, reliability, construct validity, and predictive validity.Methods: The CE-OHC scale was developed according to a strict methodology for developing valid and reliable scales. An initial set of 20 items was first tested in the pilot study conducted in 2016 using a sample of 280 registered users of Slovenia’s largest OHC. A refined version with 11 items was tested in the main study conducted in 2018 on a random sample of 30,000 registered users of the same OHC. The final sample comprised 784 users. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to investigate the factorial structure, discriminant validity, and convergent validity of the scale. Cronbach alpha coefficient was used to determine the CE-OHC scale’s internal consistency. To establish the predictive validity, ordinary least squares regression was performed to test the role of CE-OHC in users’ civic participation.Results: The EFA resulted in a two-factor solution, and the two factors—knowledge of resources and resource mobilization for collective action—together explain 63.8% of the variance. The second-order CFA demonstrated a good fit to the data (root mean square error of approximation=0.07) and the scale had a good internal consistency (alpha=.86). Although evidence of the scale’s convergent validity was partially provided, discriminant validity of the scale remained unconfirmed. Overall, CE-OHC was confirmed to be a predictor of users’ civic participation, but the influence was somewhat weak and inconsistent across two subscales.Conclusions: The proposed CE-OHC scale is a reliable and relatively valid instrument and serves as a good baseline to advance the measurement of collective empowerment in OHC contexts. This is the first scale developed for this purpose, and future research should focus on the development of a clear nomological network of the collective empowerment construct in relation to the OHC settings.

BACKGROUND The role of online health communities (OHCs) in patient empowerment is growing and has been increasingly studied in recent years. Research has focused primarily on individualistic conception of patients’ empowerment, with much less attention paid to the role of OHCs in the development of patients’ collective empowerment. Although OHCs have immense potential for empowerment that goes beyond the individual, the concept and scale of collective empowerment in OHCs have not yet been developed or validated. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to develop an instrument for measuring collective empowerment in online health communities (CE-OHC) and to test its quality by investigating its factorial structure, reliability, construct validity, and predictive validity. METHODS The CE-OHC scale was developed according to a strict methodology for developing valid and reliable scales. An initial set of 20 items was first tested in the pilot study conducted in 2016 using a sample of 280 registered users of Slovenia’s largest OHC. A refined version with 11 items was tested in the main study conducted in 2018 on a random sample of 30,000 registered users of the same OHC. The final sample comprised 784 users. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to investigate the factorial structure, discriminant validity, and convergent validity of the scale. Cronbach alpha coefficient was used to determine the CE-OHC scale’s internal consistency. To establish the predictive validity, ordinary least squares regression was performed to test the role of CE-OHC in users’ civic participation. RESULTS The EFA resulted in a two-factor solution, and the two factors—knowledge of resources and resource mobilization for collective action—together explain 63.8% of the variance. The second-order CFA demonstrated a good fit to the data (root mean square error of approximation=0.07) and the scale had a good internal consistency (alpha=.86). Although evidence of the scale’s convergent validity was partially provided, discriminant validity of the scale remained unconfirmed. Overall, CE-OHC was confirmed to be a predictor of users’ civic participation, but the influence was somewhat weak and inconsistent across two subscales. CONCLUSIONS The proposed CE-OHC scale is a reliable and relatively valid instrument and serves as a good baseline to advance the measurement of collective empowerment in OHC contexts. This is the first scale developed for this purpose, and future research should focus on the development of a clear nomological network of the collective empowerment construct in relation to the OHC settings.