Simon J. M. Davis

Morphological integration and modularity refer to the degree of covariation between the different components of an anatomical structure. Modularity refers to structures that have components which covary strongly, but at the same time are relatively independent. Integration refers to the coordinated variation of the components of a functional anatomical structure. The hindlimb basipodium is a complex functional structure. The integration of its parts must arise from a coordinated development and functionality. Our objective in this study was to study the levels of integration of two modules on the calcaneum in domestic sheep. The calcaneum develops from two different centres. One gives rise to the body and its process while the other gives rise to the distal half of the bone. The hypothesis of modularity of two parts of the calcaneum was tested using the Escoufier RV coefficient and an analysis of two blocks of Partial Least Squares. These allowed us to evaluate the level of morphological integration. For this purpose, digital images of the medial aspect of complete calcanea of 47 domestic sheep (Ovis aries) were used. Twenty 2D coordinates of homologous anatomical landmarks (4 for the body and the process and 16 for the distal half of the bone) were collected as morphometric data. These were studied using geometric morphometrics. The results indicated good evidence of modular organization and a medium morphological integration between the two modules. Thus, according to our results, the two modules seem to exist and behave in a rather independent way. They appear to share functions rather than precursors of development. This study is important in order to elucidate the underlying factors in the processes of the development of the sheep calcaneum.

The distinction between bones of sheep and bones of goats is a difficult issue in zooarchaeology. Several studies undertaken in the past to facilitate this task have relied upon both qualitative criteria and osteometry. Geometric morphometrics has proved to be a powerful tool to evaluate morphological differences in a rigorous and detailed manner. This study aims to analyse variations in the morphology of the calcaneum among sheep and goats based upon two-dimensional geometric morphometrics (GM). Twenty landmarks were selected on the surfaces of 79 calcanea (47 sheep and 32 goats) to calculate the principal components of shape variations among these specimens. Clear interspecific differences in the morphology of this bone were extracted. Most are located on the calcaneal tuber and neck, the sustentacular tali region, the articular surfaces of both the malleolus and the cubonavicular. Furthermore, the use of GM methods has enabled us to assess small but significant amounts of geometric variation that are difficult to measure using traditional morphometric techniques. They provide a new and useful perspective to what is already known in the published literature. Our results shed new light upon the possibility of the existence of qualitative features that may help to distinguish caprine breeds.

The relationship between the number of specimens found in a sample and the number of taxa represented by them is examined using data from 62 sites that were studied with the same recording and counting method. A critique is made of the various approaches that have been used to evaluate such data. The deficiencies of the "regression approach" and "sampling to redundancy" are discussed. An approach based on a simple random sampling model is suggested as the appropriate one and the effects of possible biases are evaluated. Examples of its application are given and its usefulness is assessed. A more rigorous basis for "sampling to redundancy" is also proposed.

Osteometric data from > 450 modern wild rabbits, mostly from Portugal, Spain and France, show an inverse correlation between their size and the temperature of the environment, in accordance with Bergmann’s rule. Similar measurements made on some 1660 rabbit bones from 14 Portuguese late Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological sites indicate that rabbits became considerably smaller at the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary. Thus, rabbit size varies or varied with temperature both today and in the past. A direct temperature–size relationship was assumed, and the regression of modern rabbit bone size on temperature was then used to calibrate the temperature equivalent for the change of size of rabbit bones in the past. The result indicates a Last Glacial Maximum to present-day difference, Δt°, of 7 or 8 °C. An alternative interpretation that does not assume a direct temperature–size relationship would indicate that the environment in Portugal 15 000–30 000 years ago was similar to that in northern France today.

The fauna of Neolithic Lameiras includes abundant sheep. Many could be secure- ly identified by applying criteria described by the late Joachim Boessneck as well as metrical methods. Sheep bones from Early Neolithic contexts, several dated directly via 14C, pinpoint the arrival here, 5450 cal BC, of this exotic animal three thousand years after its domestication 5000 km to the east. Thus sheep were transported at a rate of 1,6 km per year – considerably faster than suggested by the ‘wave of advance’ theory. It therefore seems probable that part of the journey was undertaken by ship. Most of the mammal remains identified at Lameiras belonged to domes- ticated forms and besides sheep and some goat, they include cattle and pig. Zooarchaeologically there is little difference between Early and Late Neolithic. However the Neolithic spectrum of species contrasts with that from a small assemblage in the underlying Mousterian level as well as other pre-Neolithic assemblages in Portugal. It is possible that in southern Portugal the adop- tion of animal husbandry was sudden. Measurements of the remains of Canis, Bos, Ovis, Capra and Sus compared with an increasingly large corpus of data from the South-Western part of the Iberian Peninsula indicate several occasions when these animals underwent size changes. Bos, Capra and Canis were considerably larger in the Pleistocene – a size difference now documented in other regions. Besides a Pleistocene-Holocene reduction in size, they underwent a further dim- inution associated with their domestication. It is possible that aurochs and wild boar recovered some of their former size after the Neolithic, perhaps due to a relaxation of hunting pressure after the Mesolithic. Domestic sheep, goats and cattle increased in size in more recent times perhaps reflecting Moslem and Christian improvements.

Taxonomic over-splitting of extinct or endangered taxa, due to an incomplete knowledge of both skeletal morphological variability and the geographical ranges of past populations, continues to confuse the link between isolated extant populations and their ancestors. This is particularly problematic with the genus Equus. To more reliably determine the evolution and phylogeographic history of the endangered Asiatic wild ass, we studied the genetic diversity and inter-relationships of both extinct and extant populations over the last 100,000 years, including samples throughout its previous range from Western Europe to Southwest and East Asia. Using 229 bp of the mitochondrial hypervariable region, an approach which allowed the inclusion of information from extremely poorly preserved ancient samples, we classify all non-African wild asses into eleven clades that show a clear phylogeographic structure revealing their phylogenetic history. This study places the extinct European wild ass, E. hydruntinus, the phylogeny of which has been debated since the end of the 19^th century, into its phylogenetic context within the Asiatic wild asses and reveals recent mitochondrial introgression between populations currently regarded as separate species. The phylogeographic organization of clades resulting from these efforts can be used not only to improve future taxonomic determination of a poorly characterized group of equids, but also to identify historic ranges, interbreeding events between various populations, and the impact of ancient climatic changes. In addition, appropriately placing extant relict populations into a broader phylogeographic and genetic context can better inform ongoing conservation strategies for this highly-endangered species.

Animal remains from excavations of the Iron Age II (end IVth century - early IIIrd century BC) and Roman Republican (Ist century BC) part of a defensive ditch of Odemira hillfort in SW Portugal are described. Most derive from domesticated animals like cattle, goats and pigs, and a hunted animal, red deer. There are two substantial changes between Iron Age and Roman times. The first is a huge increase in the frequency of red deer. This may reflect a rise in the status of the inhabitants. The second is a change in the age-at-slaughter of the cattle: most Iron Age cattle were slaughtered quite young while those in Roman times were not slaughtered until old. This probably reflects a change in the management strategy of cattle. In the Iron Age the emphasis in cattle production was for meat while the Romans kept cattle more for their power and milk. Other animals present include birds, dog, fox, horse, rabbit, and in the Roman period, some marine shells.