Elena Yurievna Tereschenko

Since the early 7th millennium BC, when ceramics had become widespread in the Eastern Fertile Crescent, specifically in central valleys and the western foothills of the Zagros, they were tempered exclusively with organic plant remains. Here, we outline the findings of the study of this temper using microscopic technological analysis, X-ray tomography and spherulite analysis, upholding the suggestion that dung was present in the paste. The samples fall in the interval from late 9th to 6th millennia BC; originating from the piedmont of the Taurus, Upper Mesopotamia, the highlands and foothills of the Zagros, and the Armenian Highland. The use of dung as temper provides additional evidence of an early beginning of animal domestication in this region. It can be assumed that this tradition spread as a large-scale phenomenon from the Zagros and its foothills northward to Upper Mesopotamia, the foothills of the Taurus Mountains, and further west and east. In the 7th millennium BC pottery, the dung was likely that of sheep and goats; from the late 6th millennium BC onward, that of cattle. Since the early 6th millennium, dung had been less and less widely used for tempering tableware while being still in use with regard to utility ware. One possible reason is a worsened attitude to dung; another, improved firing conditions.

The study examined several sets of belt fittings from the Ryazan-Oka culture area, specifically from the Nikitino and Gorodishche-2 burial sites. The research aimed to analyze the chemical composition of the metal used in belt plates and to investigate the technological aspects of their production. For comparison, artifacts unrelated to the Ryazan-Oka culture were also studied. The study included the reconstruction of technological processes. The chemical analysis of the metal in the examined belt plates from the Ryazan-Oka cultural area demonstrated that the color of the belt fittings’ material was important for this population. Plates made of silver or using various techniques to imitate silver (such as tinning or casting from alloys with a high tin and lead content) could serve as indicators of the owner’s social status. This demand led jewelers to develop new manufacturing techniques to create metal items that looked like expensive silver ornaments, yet were more affordable and easier to produce.

The pigments and binders of ruined pre-Mongolian wall paintings (12th century) of four architectural monuments in Veliky Novgorod are studied. The examined fragments are from the Church of the Annunciation on Gorodishche, St. George’s Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery, St. Nicholas Cathedral at Yaroslav’s Court, and lifting material from the bottom of the Volkhov River, presumably related to St. Sophia Cathedral. The mineral composition of the painted layers of the samples is determined using scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis and X-ray diffraction analysis using synchrotron radiation. Using infrared (IR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry, an organic binder is identified in several samples, and the binder for all four monuments was the same: protein products from chicken egg. Thus, it is shown that two painting techniques were used on the studied fragments: fresco and a secco.

A small sample of lead artifacts from the layers of the mid-6th–late 9th centuries uncovered on the Lower Town of Phanagoria, is analyzed using synchrotron X-ray diffraction analysis and multi-collector mass spectrometry. Several samples of lead artifacts from excavations of the Upper Town of Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula, dated to the Classical period, are also included for comparison. All samples are found to contain cerussite and laurionite phases, as well as muscovite phases, which indicates significant archaeological exposure. The Pb isotope composition of 11 samples from the sample set revealed that, in the mid-6th century, lead from the mines of Lavrion (Attica), which had been imported to Phanagoria in antiquity (so-called “old” lead), was used. During the early medieval period of the Lower Town’s existence, Phanagoria primarily imported lead from deposits in the Eastern Mediterranean. Several samples dated to the mid-6th to mid-9th centuries are consistent in their Pb isotope composition with ores from deposits in the Massif Central (a mountain range located in central and southern France).

The collections of many museums include various terracotta figurines and plastic vessels acquired in the second half of the 19th century by museums or private collectors from Kerch antique dealers, for example, E. R. Zaporozhskiy. These figurines were composed of fragments of authentic objects from different periods and supplemented with clay, plaster, and other materials to give them a solid, marketable form. Traditionally, in museums, they are considered fake and are not of interest to researchers. The article examines several terracotta figurines and plastic vessels of “Roman times” from the collection of the State Historical Museum (SHM, Moscow), which were purchased from E. R. Zaporozhskiy or entered the collection of V. I. Sizov in the 1880s —1890s. The National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute” carried out an X-ray tomographic study of these terracotta pieces, including the creation of 3D models of structural elements, which made it possible to identify all the genuine antique details and later inclusions clearly. As a result of the research, these objects can be considered not only as examples of forgery of the 19th century, but also as a set of authentic fragments of terracotta figurines and vessels of the first centuries AD.

С начала VII тыс. до н.э., когда керамика получила повсеместное распространение на территории восточной части Плодородного Полумесяца — в центральных долинах и западных предгорьях Загроса, — она содержала исключительно органическую растительную примесь. В настоящей работе эта примесь была изучена с помощью микроскопического технологического анализа, рентгеновской томографии и сферулитного анализа, в результате чего подтверждено предположение о ее связи с навозом. Хронологические рамки исследования охватывают конец IX — VI тыс. до н.э., географические — предгорья Тавра, Верхнюю Месопотамию, горы и предгорья Загроса, а также Армянское нагорье. Наличие навоза в формовочной массе неолитических глиняных сосудов Плодородного Полумесяца дает дополнительные доказательства раннего начала доместикации животных в этом регионе. Можно предположить, что данная традиция как масштабное явление распространялась с территории Загроса и его предгорий на север в Верхнюю Месопотамию, предгорья Тавра и далее на запад и восток. В керамике VII тыс. до н.э. можно предполагать наличие навоза мелкого рогатого скота, а со второй половины VI тыс. до н.э. — коровы. С начала VI тыс. до н.э. навоз все меньше добавляется в формовочную массу керамики, предназначенной для использования в качестве столовой посуды, но остается в грубых горшках и сосудах для хранения. Это может быть связано как с изменением в эстетическом восприятии примеси навоза, так и с совершенствованием условий обжига.

A comprehensive study of antique red-glazed pottery fragments (terra sigillata) belonging to the Pontic, Bosporan and Eastern groups has enabled the identification of distinctive technological characteristics of the slip layer and ceramic mass. The Eastern sigillata samples exhibited superior technological characteristics. The small size of the pores and inclusions is indicative of the utilisation of finely dispersed clay. Furthermore, the presence of a mixture comprising two distinct clay types was identified: a ferrous clay and a more refractory calcareous clay. The particular and likely meticulous preparation of the clay suspension for the slip layer production was indicated by the addition of a potassium-containing preparation, presumably potassium potash, to enhance the glazing of the layer, as well as an iron-containing pigment, probably ocher. The samples were fired at a temperature of approximately 1000°C. Pontic sigillata products were distinguished by the addition of potassium potash in accordance with Eastern techniques and the absence of a specially added pigment in the varnish mixture. The firing temperature was lower, falling within the range of 850–900°C.

This article presents the results of comprehensive studies of three Attic figured vessels from the 4th century BC, drawn from the State Historical Museum collection. The application of X-ray tomography, large-scale XRF mapping, energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis under SEM and synchrotron XRD analysis enabled a comprehensive examination of the vessels' state of preservation, including the identification of restoration traces and the delineation of the manufacturing technology employed. Additionally, the analysis facilitated the identification of the pigments utilized in the surface painting. A reconstruction of the polychrome painting of the vessels was proposed based on the pigment residues identified both visually and on XRF maps. Given the poor state of preservation of the coating on the surface of two vessels, a reconstruction of their possible polychrome painting was performed based on a comparison with known analogues.

Based on comprehensive studies of fragments of antique red-glazed pottery (terra sigillata) of the Pontic, Bosporan, and Eastern groups, characteristic technological features of the slip layer and ceramic bulk have been identified. The Eastern-sigillata samples exhibited the best quality. The small size of the pores and inclusions suggests the use of finely dispersed clay. In addition, a mixture of two types of clay (ferrous and more refractory calcareous) was revealed. The special and, apparently, careful preparation of the clay suspension for the slip layer production included addition of a potassium-containing preparation, presumably, potassium potash (to glaze better the layer), as well as an iron-containing pigment, likely, ochre. The firing temperature for this group of samples was about 1000°C. Pontic sigillata products differed from the Eastern pottery by a lower content of potassium potash and the absence of specially added pigment in the varnish layer. The firing temperature was lower: 850–900°C. The Bosporan products are characterized by much less thorough preparation of both the clay raw material as a base and the varnish layer, as well as the lowest firing temperature in comparison with other groups (500–900°C).

The article considers two textbook-famous Cnidian plastic vessels from the collection of the State Historical Museum in Moscow. One of them, shaped as a ram, comes from the excavations of N.I. Veselovsky in the Kuban region, the second one – a lagynos with erotic scenes on its body – was found by I.I. Gushchina at the Late Scythian burial ground Belbek IV in the Southwestern Crimea. As part of a project to do research on monuments of the classical period from the State Historical Museum collection, an X-ray tomographic study of these vessels was conducted at the National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, which made it possible to clarify the technology of their manufacture.