Md Shamim Alam

Smart textiles have progressed from conventional passive sensing fabrics to advanced cyber-physical systems capable of integrating sensing, actuation, computation, and wireless communication within a single textile platform. With a focus on circular economy principles, this review critically examines intelligent textile ecosystems, from material architectures to AI-enabled wearable platforms. The functional hierarchy involves passive (sensing), active (sensing + response) and ultra-smart (autonomous decision making) textiles. The four classes of materials are metallic conductors, carbonaceous nanomaterials (CNTs and graphene), conductive polymers (PEDOT:PSS) and bio-based alternatives. Integration is achieved through coating, weaving, printing and additive manufacturing. Energy autonomy is achieved by five harvesting mechanisms: piezoelectric (1–10 µW·cm⁻²), triboelectric (10–100 µW·cm⁻²), thermoelectric (20–50 µW·cm⁻²), photovoltaic (100–1000 µW·cm⁻²) and bio-electrochemical (1–5 µW·cm⁻²). Hybrid systems can run continuously. Flexible supercapacitors and thin-film batteries are used for energy storage. The combination of AI and IoT allows for multi-tier architectures that encompass edge processing (TinyML), gateway management, and cloud analytics. On-device inference reduces energy consumption by 60–80%, improves privacy and enables real-time anomaly detection using CNNs, LSTMs and autoencoders. Sustainability is considered through life-cycle assessment, which quantifies impacts across extraction, fabrication, use, and end-of-life of materials. Circular strategies such as design for disassembly, harmonization of materials, biodegradable electronics, and recycling routes are all important. We critically evaluate key challenges such as manufacturing scalability, washability, biocompatibility, and regulatory standardization. This review provides a unifying framework that connects materials science, electronics, AI and sustainable design, providing a roadmap for circular, intelligent and energy-autonomous textile systems in line with UN SDGs (3, 9, 12, 13).

The development of multifunctional textiles with enhanced ultraviolet (UV) protection has attracted increasing attention due to the growing demand for protective and high-performance clothing. In this study, cotton fabrics dyed with reactive dyes at three dye concentrations (0.5%, 1.5%, and 3.0% owf) were functionalised with titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles using a pad-dry-cure process. The influence of TiO₂ concentration and washing on colour strength, colour fastness, UV protection, fabric stiffness, and pad–dry–cure immediate washing resistance was investigated through colorimetric measurements, FTIR spectroscopy, SEM analysis, and ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) evaluation. TiO₂ treatment produced only minor changes in colour strength, while colour fastness and fabric stiffness were largely preserved. FTIR and SEM analyses provided evidence consistent with the deposition of TiO₂-containing material and its partial removal after washing. The most significant improvement was observed in UV protection, with TiO₂-treated fabrics exhibiting substantially higher UPF values than untreated samples, while maintaining enhanced protection after laundering. These findings demonstrate that TiO₂ nanoparticle pad–dry–cure treatment is an effective post-dyeing strategy for improving the UV-protective performance of reactive-dyed cotton fabrics without compromising their colour durability or handling characteristics.

Smart textiles have progressed from conventional passive sensing fabrics to advanced cyber-physical systems capable of integrating sensing, actuation, computation, and wireless communication within a single textile platform. With a focus on circular economy principles, this review critically examines intelligent textile ecosystems, from material architectures to AI-enabled wearable platforms. The functional hierarchy in-volves passive (sensing), active (sensing + response) and ultra-smart (autonomous deci-sion-making) textiles. The four classes of materials are metallic conductors, carbonaceous nanomaterials (CNTs and graphene), conductive polymers (PEDOT:PSS) and bio-based alternatives. Integration is achieved by coating, weaving, printing and additive manu-facturing. Energy autonomy is achieved by five harvesting mechanisms: piezoelectric (1–10 µW·cm⁻²), triboelectric (10–100 µW·cm⁻²), thermoelectric (20–50 µW·cm⁻²), photovol-taic (100–1000 µW·cm⁻²) and bioelectrochemical (1–5 µW·cm⁻²). Hybrid systems can run continuously. Flexible supercapacitors and thin-film batteries are used for energy stor-age. The combination of AI and IoT allows for multi-tier architectures that encompass edge processing (TinyML), gateway management, and cloud analytics. On-device in-ference reduces energy consumption by 60-80%, improves privacy and enables real-time anomaly detection using CNNs, LSTMs and autoencoders. Sustainability is considered by life cycle assessment, which quantifies impacts across extraction, fabrication, use, and end-of-life of materials. Circular strategies: Design for disassembly, harmonisation of materials, biodegradable electronics, and recycling routes are all important. We critically evaluate key challenges such as manufacturing scalability, washability, biocompatibility, and regulatory standardisation. This review provides a unifying framework that con-nects materials science, electronics, AI and sustainable design, providing a roadmap for circular, intelligent and energy-autonomous textile systems in line with UN SDGs (3, 9, 12, 13).

Capacitive deionization (CDI) performance depends critically on electrode morphology and interfacial chemistry, yet mechanistic insight into electrosorption and ion–polymer interactions remains scarce. We report three one‐dimensional polyaniline (1D‐PANI) architectures—nanofibers (NF‐PANI), nanorods (NR‐PANI), and nanotubes (NT‐PANI)—with average lengths of 360–370 nm, 190–200 nm, and 170–180 nm, respectively, synthesized via oxidative polymerization inspired by solvent‐dependent 1D growth behavior, and systematically correlate their morphology, chemistry, and electrochemical performance through comprehensive microscopic, structural, chemical, surface‐area/porosity, and thermal analyses. NT‐PANI, possessing the shortest average length and the highest accessible surface area (24.18 m ² g ⁻¹ ) among the three 1D architectures, delivers the best electrochemical and CDI performance (specific capacitance = 110 F g ⁻¹ at 0.7 A g ⁻¹ ), highlighting the critical role of size‐controlled morphology in ion transport and electrosorption. Noticeably, the characteristic length of NT‐PANI is approximately half that of NF‐PANI, while its specific capacitance is nearly doubled, strongly demonstrating that nanostructure length plays a pivotal role in governing CDI performance. In batch CDI tests (100 ppm NaCl, symmetric cell, 1.0 V), NT‐PANI attains the highest salt adsorption capacity (29.21 mg g ⁻¹ ) and average adsorption rate (2.1 mg g ⁻¹ min ⁻¹ ). Importantly, combined ex‐situ chemical, thermal, and imaging evidence establishes an interfacial electrosorption mechanism: Na ⁺ uptake occurs predominantly through electrostatic coordination with oxygen‐containing moieties—particularly hydroxyl‐type O–C sites—while nitrogen functionalities play only a minor role; the ions are confined within the tubular channels rather than depositing as surface crystals. This redox‐coupled ion adsorption, together with in‐pore trapping, enhances charge compensation and produces measurable thermal stabilization of the loaded polymer. These findings decouple size‐dependent performance from chemical binding and provide a mechanistic framework for designing oxygen‐rich, nanotubular conducting‐polymer electrodes for high‐efficiency, durable CDI systems.

Due to the rapid development of the textile industry and increased consumption of various textiles composed of both synthetic and natural fibers, large amounts of textile waste are produced, leading to environmental and economic problems on a global scale. Turning textile waste into carbon materials that can be used in a broad range of applications has become a viable solution to address this challenge in terms of sustainability and value generation. Natural and synthetic textile fibers have distinctive molecular structures with relatively high carbon content and variable chemical functionality; therefore, they have been identified as highly promising precursors for fabricating carbon materials with various electrochemical and environmental applications. At the same time, the properties of carbonized and activated textile fibers are strongly dependent on the molecular transformations taking place during thermal treatment and functionalization of textile fibers. This review will provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular evolution of natural and synthetic textile fibers during carbonization and activation processes in terms of dehydration, depolymerization, aromatization, heteroatom preservation, and graphitization mechanisms. The effect of precursor chemical composition, pyrolysis conditions, activation process, and heteroatom incorporation on the structure of carbonized and activated textile fibers and their physical and electrochemical properties will be analyzed. Particular emphasis is placed on electrochemical applications, including capacitive deionization, supercapacitors, electrocatalysis, and emerging smart electrochemical textile systems, highlighting how molecular transformation, pore engineering, and surface chemistry govern charge storage, ion adsorption, and catalytic behavior. In addition, major characterization techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area analysis will be reviewed and discussed in relation to understanding the interdependence between molecular structure and material properties. Finally, recent issues related to feedstock heterogeneity, scalability, energy efficiency, and sustainability of processing are highlighted, and future perspectives on multifunctional carbon structures and circular utilization of textile waste are discussed.

The performance of drug-loaded electrospun nanofibres is governed not only by drug content but also by the spatial distribution of the drug within the fibre matrix, which determines release kinetics and biological response. Here, we demonstrate that dose-dependent surface crystallisation of dexamethasone (DEX) in electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL)/gelatin nanofibres controls drug release behaviour and subsequent macrophage-mediated inflammation. Nanofibre mats containing 0, 1, and 2 wt% DEX (PG0, PG1, PG2) were fabricated and systematically characterised. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a change from homogeneous fibres (PG0) to surface-decorated crystalline domains with increasing drug loading, which indicates a supersaturation-driven phase separation during electrospinning. This morphological evolution directly governs the transport behaviour: PG2 exhibits a pronounced burst release due to surface-localised drug, whereas PG1 shows a balanced release profile with both surface-accessible and matrix-embedded drug fractions. Release characteristics result in different biological outcomes. PG1 and PG2 strongly inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) in LPS-stimulated macrophages (~70–75% reduction), confirming retained drug bioactivity. However, higher drug loading (PG2) leads to lower fibroblast viability and compromised mechanical integrity. Importantly, PG1 shows a desirable balance of controlled drug release, cytocompatibility (>90% viability) and mechanical performance (~8 MPa) with effective anti-inflammatory activity. Degradation studies also show controlled structural evolution without destabilisation upon pH change, demonstrating suitability for wound environments. These results reveal surface crystallisation as an important design parameter for electrospun drug delivery systems and demonstrate that optimal therapeutic performance is controlled by intermediate drug loading, not maximum loading, providing a mechanistic framework for the rational design of immunomodulatory wound dressings.

In pigment printing, binders are essential for fixing insoluble pigments onto textile fibres by forming a continuous film, ensuring durability, wash fastness and colour retention. However, most commercially used synthetic binders are derived from petrochemicals, which pose environmental and health concerns due to their energy‐intensive production and hazardous waste generation. In this study, an eco‐friendly alternative was investigated by combining natural rubber latex with a synthetic binder for pigment printing on cotton fabric. A broad range of mechanical, optical and fastness properties of the printed fabric was assessed. A favourable result was achieved when the effect was compared with a conventional printing recipe containing a synthetic binder. The results show that the performance of the printed fabric depends on the percentage of natural rubber in binder combination, the curing conditions and the concentration of printing auxiliaries. Optimal printing properties were achieved by using a printing paste containing 80% natural rubber latex/20% synthetic binder (117.5 g/kg), pigment (25 g/kg), thickener (100 g/kg), fixer (80 g/kg) and ammonium sulphate (10 g/kg), followed by curing at 150°C for 3 min. This combination demonstrated comparable print quality to conventional synthetic binders while requiring less oxygen during biodegradation tests (BOD), highlighting its potential as an eco‐friendly and cost‐effective alternative.