Ethel Eljarrat

Children are vulnerable to indoor contamination by semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) due to their physiology, behaviour, and time spent indoors. Among these, organophosphate esters (OPEs), phthalate esters (PEs), and alternative plasticizers (APs) are of increasing concern, yet their occurrence across microenvironments and seasons remains insufficiently characterized. This study included 38 such compounds in indoor and outdoor air and settled dust from homes and schools in Barcelona, assessing children’s exposure, including seasonal and site-specific patterns in an urban Mediterranean setting. PEs were the most abundant group, with diethyl phthalate (DEP) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) reaching 271 and 314 ng/m³ in air, and DEHP and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) reaching 267 and 126 µg/g in dust. APs were the second most prevalent group, including dibutyl adipate (DBA), bis(ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), and diisononyl 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (DINCH), while OPEs occurred at lower levels. Seasonal patterns showed higher PE, AP, and total concentrations in home air during summer, whereas total concentrations in schools decreased, suggesting effects of temperature-driven volatilization and ventilation. Outdoor samples showed lower APs (homes) and higher OPEs (schools), indicating contributions from ambient sources. Dust in schools contained higher median OPEs, PEs, and total concentrations than in homes. Children’s total airborne estimated daily intake (EDI) median was 69.4 ng/(kg bw·day), with group EDIs ranging from 0.245 to 2773 ng/(kg bw·day). Cancer (CR) and non-cancer risks (Non-CR) estimates remained within screening benchmarks. Overall, plasticizers and flame retardants were widespread across environments, with seasonal variability playing a key role in children’s exposure.

Dismantling activities in e-waste recycling facilities release significant amounts of hazardous chemicals, including phthalates, alternative plasticisers, and organophosphate esters (OPEs), which represent a relevant source of occupational exposure. This study applied an integrated approach combining passive polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sampling and human biomonitoring via urinary metabolites to characterise workers’ exposure. Parent compounds of all three additive families (n = 31) and their respective metabolites (n = 34) were detected in the PDMS pendants and urine samples, confirming a continuous exposure to complex chemical mixtures. Phthalates exhibited the highest concentrations in pendants (median = 4147 ng/sampler), followed by OPEs (1369 ng/pendant) and alternative plasticisers (302 ng/pendant). In contrast, estimated daily intakes (EDIs) derived from urinary biomarkers were dominated by alternative plasticisers (median EDI = 8719 ng/kg bw·day), with DEHA as the predominant contributor (median EDI =7751 ng/kg bw·day). Phthalates emerged as the second main contributor to urinary EDIs (median EDI = 3447 ng/kg bw·day), while OPEs showed substantially lower values (median = 78.3 ng/kg bw·day). Both exposure assessment strategies revealed significant qualitative and quantitative correlations, with correlation values (r) up to 0.759, highlighting that e-waste dismantling activities are a relevant contributor to total daily intake. Despite elevated exposure levels compared to the general population, no health risk was identified. Additionally, the use of face masks as personal protective equipment (PPE) to reduce dismantlers' exposure during work was examined; however, no significant influence (ρ > 0.05 for all chemical families) in EDIs was observed among workers who used different masks.

The occurrence and distribution of organic contaminants mobilized by the October 2024 cut-off low (DANA) event that severely affected the province of Valencia (Spain) were analyzed by use of liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Extreme rainfall generated approximately over 800,000 tonnes of sludge, much of which was redistributed across urban and peri-urban areas or transported to sensitive ecosystems such as Albufera Natural Park. Sludge and dust were analyzed for a broad spectrum of legacy and emerging organic pollutants, including pesticides, legacy and emerging brominated flame retardants, short-chain chlorinated paraffins, plastic additives, and personal care products. All contaminant classes were detected in both matrices, with particularly high concentrations of phthalates and certain pesticides. Legacy compounds such as lindane, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) metabolites, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were frequently identified, indicating remobilization of historically contaminated sediments. Dust samples generally exhibited higher total contaminant loads than sludge, dominated by plasticizers (notably di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate [DEHP and DINP]). Environmental risk was assessed using the hazard quotient (HQ) approach based on sediment predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs). Several pesticides (e.g., cypermethrin, heptachlor epoxide, lindane) and plastic additives (notably DEHP) showed HQ values exceeding 1, with worst-case scenarios indicating substantial ecological risk. These estimates reflect a screening-level assessment and are subject to uncertainties in exposure and toxicity data, and should therefore be interpreted as indicators of potential risk. Considering the large volume of sludge generated, the event may have mobilized significant quantities of pollutants posing potential threats to downstream aquatic systems, although the magnitude cannot be fully determined without baseline data. While dust inhalation may represent a secondary human exposure pathway, current evidence suggests limited immediate public health risk. These findings underline the role of extreme climatic events as vectors of diffuse chemical contamination and underscore the need for integrated postdisaster environmental monitoring and risk management strategies.

Children are vulnerable to indoor contamination by semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) due to their physiology, behaviour, and time spent indoors. Among these, organophosphate esters (OPEs), phthalate esters (PEs), and alternative plasticizers (APs) are of increasing concern, yet their occurrence across microenvironments and seasons remains insufficiently characterized. This study included 38 such compounds in indoor and outdoor air and settled dust from homes and schools in Barcelona, assessing children’s exposure, including seasonal and site-specific patterns in an urban Mediterranean setting. PEs were the most abundant group, with diethyl phthalate (DEP) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) reaching 271 and 314 ng/m³ in air, and DEHP and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) reaching 267 and 126 µg/g in dust. APs were the second most prevalent group, including dibutyl adipate (DBA), bis(ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), and diisononyl 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (DINCH), while OPEs occurred at lower levels. Seasonal patterns showed higher PE, AP, and total concentrations in home air during summer, whereas total concentrations in schools decreased, suggesting effects of temperature-driven volatilization and ventilation. Outdoor samples showed lower APs (homes) and higher OPEs (schools), indicating contributions from ambient sources. Dust in schools contained higher median OPEs, PEs, and total concentrations than in homes. Children’s total airborne estimated daily intake (EDI) median was 69.4 ng/(kg bw·day), with group EDIs ranging from 0.245 to 2773 ng/(kg bw·day). Cancer (CR) and non-cancer risks (Non-CR) estimates remained within screening benchmarks. Overall, plasticizers and flame retardants were widespread across environments, with seasonal variability playing a key role in children’s exposure.

Children are vulnerable to indoor contamination by semi-volatile organic compounds due to their physiology, behaviour, and time spent indoors. These compounds include organophosphate esters (OPEs), phthalate esters (PEs), and alternative plasticizers (APs), which can be released into air and settled dust due to their non-covalent incorporation.The present study included 38 such compounds in indoor and outdoor air and settled dust from homes and schools in Barcelona, and evaluated children’s exposure. Additionally, seasonal and site-specific correlations were assessed. PEs, particularly showed high concentrations compared to the literature, with levels of 271 and 314 ng/m3 in air, respectively, and DEHP and DiNP concentrations of 267 and 126 µg/g in dust. APs were the second most abundant group, with DBA, DEHA, and DINCH consistently detected in air (87.7, 75.7, and 49.9 ng/m3, respectively) and dust (159, 33.4, and 33.6 µg/g, respectively). OPEs occurred at lower concentrations across sampling conditions (10.6 ng/m3 in air and 25.9 µg/g in dust, respectively).Seasonal patterns were observed in air samples, with higher PE, AP, and total concentrations in homes during summer, while total concentrations in schools decreased in summer. Outdoor samples showed lower APs (homes) and higher OPEs (schools) compared with indoor samples. Dust samples from schools contained higher OPEs, PEs, and total concentrations than those from homes.Children’s total airborne estimated daily intake (EDI) averaged 6815 ng/(kg bw·day), with group EDIs ranging from 5.93 to 67136 ng/(kg bw·day). While mean cancer risk (CR) values remained below the 10−6 threshold, summer air exceeded this benchmark. Non-cancer risk (Non-CR) values were below the 1.00 reference limit, although the 95th percentile exceeded it in summer home air, suggesting increased volatilization at higher temperatures.

The growing demand for sustainable packaging has accelerated the development of biodegradable, bio-based alternatives to traditional plastics