Prem Sagar Chapagain

Human activities and river course change have a complex reciprocal interaction. The river channel is altered by human activity, and these alterations have an impact on the activities and settlements along the riverbank. Understanding the relationship between urbanization and changes in river morphology is crucial for effective river management, safeguarding the urban environment, and mitigating flood hazards. In this context, this study has been conducted to investigate the interrelationship between morphological dynamics, built-up growth, and urban flood risk along the Manohara River in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The Sinuosity Index was used to analyze variation in river courses and instability from 1996 to 2023. Built-up change analysis is carried out using supervised maximum likelihood classification method and rate of change is calculated for built-up area growth (2003–2023) and building construction between 2003 and 2021. Flood hazard risk manning was carried out using flood frequency estimation method integrating HEC-GeoRAS modeling. Linear regression and spatial overlay analysis was carried out to examine the interrelationship between river morphology, urban growth, and fold hazed risk. In recent years (2016–2023), the Manohara River has straightened, particularly after 2011. Before 2011, it had significant meandering with pronounced curves and bends, indicating a mature river system. However, the SI value of 1.45 in 2023 and 1.80 in 2003 indicates a significant straightening of high meandering over 20 years. A flood hazard modeling carried out within the active floodplain of the Manohara River shows that 26.4% of the area is under high flood risk and 21% is under moderate risk. Similarly, over 10 years from 2006 to 2016, the rate of built-up change was found to be 9.11, while it was 7.9 between 2011 and 2021. The calculated R² value of 0.7918 at a significance level of 0.05 (with a p value of 0.0175, and a standard error value of 0.07877) indicates a strong positive relationship between decreasing sinuosity and increasing built-up, which demonstrates the effect of built-up expansion on river morphology, particularly the anthropogenic activities of encroachment and haphazard constructions, mining, dumping wastes, and squatter settlements along the active floodplain, causing instability on the river course and hence, lateral shift. The riverbank and active floodplain are not defined scientifically, which leads to the invasion of the river area. These activities, together with land use alteration in the floodplain, show an increased risk of flood hazards and other natural calamities. Therefore, sustainable protection measures must be prioritized in the active floodplain and flood risk areas, taking into account upstream–downstream linkages and chain effects caused by interaction between natural and adverse anthropogenic activities.

The current study explores synergies between climate change policy instruments and agriculture sector, reviews identified gaps and understands the translation of policy instruments at local level in five sample municipalities of three ecological regions. Understanding the adaptation actions and knowledge on implementation practices at household level is as the objective of this study. It adopted qualitative research approach using both primary (KII, FGD and household survey) and secondary data (review of existing policy documents) based on qualitative document analysis, (QDA). The study found that, policy and programs formulation at national and sub-national level in different period, are designed within the same setting from national to local level but there is divergence in programs formulation and implementation methods. Capacity and understanding of policy instruments has resulted different policy output which implicate farmers’ response to implementation practices. It is found that municipal authorities are implementing climate friendly agriculture programs without explicitly declaring climate action. The farmers are practicing autonomous adaption in agriculture with limited understanding and technical knowledge of long term climate change effect on farming. This has resulted maladaptive practices, which has contested planned climate change adaptation plan and programs. It devaluates the effort and resources spent by national and international institutions on CC policy instrument formulation and implementation. The need of field based demonstrative understanding and awareness campaigns for smallholder farmers is anticipated. It concludes that, flexibility of policy instruments through regular improvements and modification aids context-specific localization provide custom solutions. The custom solution match the traditional and existing adaptation practices assuring ownership at ground level.

People’s Multiparty Democracy (PMPD) is a creative thought of redefining Marxism in the twenty-first century. It advocates for multiparty competition, the rule of law, and supremacy through competition for leadership. It is also characterized by social justice, human rights, and economic equality. PMPD respects the embedded relationships between women and nature and internalizes the harmony between people and the environment for sustainable development. It acknowledges diversity and differences in society and environment, claiming that colonialism and neoliberalism have commodity nature and destroyed biodiversity, and displaced communities depending on natural resources. Further, it amplifies the access and control of resources to the local people and is utilized with the values as argued in Vedic philosophy, and utilizes the environmental resources with due recognition to the needs of future generations.

Climate change is a global issue. Its impacts are recognized at different scales ranging from global to regional to local. Climate change particularly changes in temperature and precipitation has been observed differently in different ecological regions in Nepal Himalaya. The study area comprises five villages of three ecological regions in the Gandaki River Basin (GRB) of Nepal. Based on the observed climate data of a 30-year period from 1990 to 2020, the changes in temperature and precipitation of each ecological region are analyzed using the Mann–Kendall trend test and Sen’s slope. The temperature trend was found to be increasing at the rate of 0.0254 °C per year (°C/a) between 1990 and 2020 in the Mountain region, by 0.0921 °C/a in the Hill region and 0.0042 °C/a in the Tarai region. The precipitation trend in the Mountain region is decreasing by −13.126 mm per year (mm/a), by −9.3998 mm/a in the Hill region and by −5.0247 mm/a in the Tarai region. Household questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were carried out to assess the perception of climate change and its impact. The farmers of the three ecological regions have perceived increasing temperature trends, but perceived variability in precipitation trends. Both snowfall and rainfall have varied. Snowfall has drastically decreased. Drought has increased. Extreme disaster events and impacts from such climate-induced events are experienced by 67.9% of respondents. A major impact of climate change is reported on cultivated crops with damage caused by increased insect and rodent pests. The impact of climate change is varied by ecological region. The comparative study of observed data and household data shows the need for a micro-level study so that a real situation can be captured and would be very much useful for policy formulation to combat climate change at a local scale.

The environmental situation of the Hiamlayas is a matter of global concern. Understanding on Himalayas environment is usually shaped by the changing views expressed by research institutions, doner organizations, and finally by politics and power relations. In line with changing paradigms in knowledge-producing institutions, different understandings of environmental challenges in the Himalayas have emerged. Based on the literature and available data, we have tried to discern changes in forest policies, their implication on forest management and various understandings of deforestation in Nepal Himalayas that are salient in the scientific literature. The debate of deforestation/degradation on the state of Himalayan environment came on the global agenda in the 1950s. The initial focus was on population growth and pressure on natural resources. It was followed by attention to processes of development and physical interventions in a fragile environment. Most recently local participation and poverty alleviation have been high on the agenda. In this context, the present paper attempts to examine the debates in the light of recent events and circumstances related to environmental processes in general and forest management of Nepal in particular.

Climate change is one of the crucial and inevitable issues in the earth though people can minimize on contribution and can adapt coping strategies. Although, Nepal contributes very less part of the total in the factors of climate change, local people are observing significant changes which leading many challenges. As a result, the livelihood of local people is being more critical. Based on the data collected from the 7 wards of Mangaltar VDC in Khotang district, the result shows the changing pattern indicators of climate change and its impact on crops production. In addition, the findings illustrate the local adaptation strategies on changing environment in the period of last thirty years.