Andrzej Araźny

The long-term Moravian missionary meteorological observations, conducted from the late 18th century until the 2nd World War, provide a unique perspective on climate conditions along the Labrador coast. The present paper focuses on the analysis of air temperature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries based on sub-daily observations (three to five times a day) available for six stations: Rama (1882–1890), Hebron (1882–1918), Okak (1883–1889), Nain (1882–1913, 1926–1939), Zoar (1882–1894), and Hopedale (Hoffenthal) (1882–1898). The meteorological observations were carried out by the missionaries on behalf of the Deutsche Seewarte and are preserved in the archives of Deutscher Wetterdienst (Germany). Quality-controlled and corrected mean daily air temperature were used to calculate standard climatic characteristics, including monthly, seasonal, and annual means; climate continentality indices; day-to-day temperature variability; thermal seasons; and other characteristics. In addition to extending the climate analysis, a set of additional useful climatic indices was calculated, including Growing Degree Days (GDD), Air Thawing Index (ATI), Positive Degree Days (PDD), and Air Freezing Index (AFI). Historical temperature data from the coast of Labrador were compared with contemporary thermal conditions from 1990 to 2020. At Nain, the mean annual air temperature during 1882–1892 was 2.3 °C lower than during 1990–2020. The separate Nain record for the Early Twentieth Century Warming (1926–1939) remained 0.8 °C lower than the modern mean. At Hopedale, the mean annual temperature was −3.2 °C during 1882–1898 and −1.5 °C during 1990–2020, giving a historical–modern difference of −1.7 °C. At Nain, warmer temperature classes occurred more frequently during the modern period, particularly in autumn and summer, whereas the differences at Hopedale were most apparent in summer. The historical records also indicate a slightly greater annual temperature range and stronger climate continentality than in the modern period, with the largest temperature changes occurring during the cold season.

The long-term Moravian missionary meteorological observations, conducted from the late 18th century until the 2nd World War, provide a unique perspective on climate conditions along the Labrador coast. The present paper focuses on the analysis of air temperature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries based on sub-daily observations (three to five times a day) available for six stations: Rama (1882–1890), Hebron (1882–1918), Okak (1883–1889), Nain (1882–1913, 1926–1939), Zoar (1882–1894), and Hopedale (Hoffenthal) (1882–1898). The meteorological observations were carried out by the missionaries on behalf of the Deutsche Seewarte and are preserved in the archives of Deutscher Wetterdienst (Germany). Quality-controlled and corrected mean daily air temperature were used to calculate standard climatic characteristics, including monthly, seasonal, and annual means; climate continentality indices; day-to-day temperature variability; thermal seasons; and other characteristics. In addition to extending the climate analysis, a set of additional useful climatic indices was calculated, including Growing Degree Days (GDD), Air Thawing Index (ATI), Positive Degree Days (PDD), and Air Freezing Index (AFI). Historical temperature data from the coast of Labrador were compared with contemporary thermal conditions from 1990 to 2020. At Nain, the mean annual air temperature during 1882–1892 was 2.3 °C lower than during 1990–2020. The separate Nain record for the Early Twentieth Century Warming (1926–1939) remained 0.8 °C lower than the modern mean. At Hopedale, the mean annual temperature was −3.2 °C during 1882–1898 and −1.5 °C during 1990–2020, giving a historical–modern difference of −1.7 °C. At Nain, warmer temperature classes occurred more frequently during the modern period, particularly in autumn and summer, whereas the differences at Hopedale were most apparent in summer. The historical records also indicate a slightly greater annual temperature range and stronger climate continentality than in the modern period, with the largest temperature changes occurring during the cold season.

The long-term Moravian missionary meteorological observations, conducted from the late 18th century until the 2nd World War, provide a unique perspective on climate conditions along the Labrador coast. The present paper focuses on the analysis of air temperature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries based on sub-daily observations (three to five times a day) available for six stations: Rama (1882–1890), Hebron (1882–1918), Okak (1883–1889), Nain (1882–1913, 1926–1939), Zoar (1882–1894), and Hopedale (Hoffenthal) (1882–1898). The meteorological observations were carried out by the missionaries on behalf of the Deutsche Seewarte and are preserved in the archives of Deutscher Wetterdienst (Germany). Quality-controlled and corrected mean daily air temperature were used to calculate standard climatic characteristics, including monthly, seasonal, and annual means; climate continentality indices; day-to-day temperature variability; thermal seasons; and other characteristics. In addition to extending the climate analysis, a set of additional useful climatic indices was calculated, including Growing Degree Days (GDD), Air Thawing Index (ATI), Positive Degree Days (PDD), and Air Freezing Index (AFI). Historical temperature data from the coast of Labrador were compared with contemporary thermal conditions from 1990 to 2020. At Nain, the mean annual air temperature during 1882–1892 was 2.3 °C lower than during 1990–2020. The separate Nain record for the Early Twentieth Century Warming (1926–1939) remained 0.8 °C lower than the modern mean. At Hopedale, the mean annual temperature was −3.2 °C during 1882–1898 and −1.5 °C during 1990–2020, giving a historical–modern difference of −1.7 °C. At Nain, warmer temperature classes occurred more frequently during the modern period, particularly in autumn and summer, whereas the differences at Hopedale were most apparent in summer. The historical records also indicate a slightly greater annual temperature range and stronger climate continentality than in the modern period, with the largest temperature changes occurring during the cold season.

The paper presents a detailed analysis of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century, including their frequency, intensity, and impacts on the natural environment, society and economy. The analysis is solely based on available documentary evidence. Preliminary archival research allowed the construction of a comprehensive database of strong winds for Poland for the study period. The 542 weather notes were used to obtain the following information about strong winds: time, location/region, duration, and indexations of intensity, extent, and damage character. For the first time, 14 years of complete daily weather data were used to analyse the occurrence of strong winds. The methodology follows that utilised by Przybylak et al. (2025) for the analysis of strong winds prior to the 17^th century. The number of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century reached 525, with the majority occurring in the second half of the century. In the annual cycle, strong winds were less frequent in summer, whereas the other seasons had similar frequencies. The wind category “fresh and strong breeze” occurred the most frequently (61.9 %), followed by “gales” (26.7 %). The former category dominated in spring and autumn (58.8 %), whereas the latter prevailed in the cold half-year (65 %). Each category of strong wind occurred more commonly in northern and north-eastern Poland than anywhere else. In 13.5 % of reports of strong winds, information about damage was available – most frequently in winter and autumn and least frequently in spring. The most frequently reported damage and destruction involved buildings (residential, agricultural, churches, etc.) and forests. The availability of daily-resolution data significantly improved the reliability of results on strong wind occurrence, particularly for the mildest analysed category (fresh and strong breeze). The changes in frequency of strong wind events in Poland in the 17^th century were more similar to those observed in Northern than Southern Europe.

The paper presents a detailed analysis of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century, including their frequency, intensity, and impacts on the natural environment, society and economy. The analysis is solely based on available documentary evidence. Preliminary archival research allowed the construction of a comprehensive database of strong winds for Poland for the study period. The 542 weather notes were used to obtain the following information about strong winds: time, location/region, duration, and indexations of intensity, extent, and damage character. For the first time, 14 years of complete daily weather data were used to analyse the occurrence of strong winds. The methodology follows that utilised by Przybylak et al. (2025) for the analysis of strong winds prior to the 17^th century. The number of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century reached 525, with the majority occurring in the second half of the century. In the annual cycle, strong winds were less frequent in summer, whereas the other seasons had similar frequencies. The wind category “fresh and strong breeze” occurred the most frequently (61.9 %), followed by “gales” (26.7 %). The former category dominated in spring and autumn (58.8 %), whereas the latter prevailed in the cold half-year (65 %). Each category of strong wind occurred more commonly in northern and north-eastern Poland than anywhere else. In 13.5 % of reports of strong winds, information about damage was available – most frequently in winter and autumn and least frequently in spring. The most frequently reported damage and destruction involved buildings (residential, agricultural, churches, etc.) and forests. The availability of daily-resolution data significantly improved the reliability of results on strong wind occurrence, particularly for the mildest analysed category (fresh and strong breeze). The changes in frequency of strong wind events in Poland in the 17^th century were more similar to those observed in Northern than Southern Europe.

The paper presents a detailed analysis of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century, including their frequency, intensity, and impacts on the natural environment, society and economy. The analysis is solely based on available documentary evidence. Preliminary archival research allowed the construction of a comprehensive database of strong winds for Poland for the study period. The 542 weather notes were used to obtain the following information about strong winds: time, location/region, duration, and indexations of intensity, extent, and damage character. For the first time, 14 years of complete daily weather data were used to analyse the occurrence of strong winds. The methodology follows that utilised by Przybylak et al. (2025) for the analysis of strong winds prior to the 17^th century. The number of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century reached 525, with the majority occurring in the second half of the century. In the annual cycle, strong winds were less frequent in summer, whereas the other seasons had similar frequencies. The wind category “fresh and strong breeze” occurred the most frequently (61.9 %), followed by “gales” (26.7 %). The former category dominated in spring and autumn (58.8 %), whereas the latter prevailed in the cold half-year (65 %). Each category of strong wind occurred more commonly in northern and north-eastern Poland than anywhere else. In 13.5 % of reports of strong winds, information about damage was available – most frequently in winter and autumn and least frequently in spring. The most frequently reported damage and destruction involved buildings (residential, agricultural, churches, etc.) and forests. The availability of daily-resolution data significantly improved the reliability of results on strong wind occurrence, particularly for the mildest analysed category (fresh and strong breeze). The changes in frequency of strong wind events in Poland in the 17^th century were more similar to those observed in Northern than Southern Europe.

Anemological and atmospheric pressure conditions were analysed based on two series (1767/68 and 1784–1792) of meteorological observations from Nuuk, the capital of Greenland, located on the island's south-western coast. The first series is the oldest long-term series of instrumental measurements available for the area around Nuuk. Meteorological observations were conducted using instructions and instruments provided by the Palatinate Meteorological Society. The materials used in this work come from European archives: Moravian Archives in Herrnhut (Germany) and Det Kgl. Bibliotek in Copenhagen (Denmark). Wind speed, visually assessed by Moravian observers in a several-degree intensity scale, was compared to the Beaufort scale and, finally, recalculated to the presently used units (m s ⁻¹ ). Atmospheric pressure measurements had been taken using a mercury barometer with Paris inch scales, whereas air temperature had been measured with thermometers in Fahrenheit/Réaumur scales; these were recalculated to hPa and Celsius degrees, respectively. Monthly frequencies of occurrence of daily average atmospheric pressure values (stratified into various intervals describing the intensity of highs and lows) was examined, as were the magnitudes of day-to-day changes that affect the human body. Each year during the historical period, episodes of atmospheric pressure exceeding 1020 hPa occurred. Day-to-day changes were typically below 8 hPa, but changes exceeding 12 hPa occurred in almost every month. The annual and seasonal frequencies of winds from each of eight directions were exceptionally low for the SE direction (3 % to 12 %) and highest for winds from the NE (19 % to 37 %). Atmospheric pressure in the historical period was 5.9 hPa lower than the contemporary period (1991–2020), while the average wind speed for both periods was 6.1 m s ⁻¹ .

The paper presents a detailed analysis of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century, including their frequency, intensity, and impacts on the natural environment, society and economy. The analysis is solely based on available documentary evidence. Preliminary archival research allowed the construction of a comprehensive database of strong winds for Poland for the study period. The 542 weather notes were used to obtain the following information about strong winds: time, location/region, duration, and indexations of intensity, extent, and damage character. For the first time, 14 years of complete daily weather data were used to analyse the occurrence of strong winds. The methodology follows that utilised by Przybylak et al. (2025) for the analysis of strong winds prior to the 17^th century. The number of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century reached 525, with the majority occurring in the second half of the century. In the annual cycle, strong winds were less frequent in summer, whereas the other seasons had similar frequencies. The wind category “fresh and strong breeze” occurred the most frequently (61.9 %), followed by “gales” (26.7 %). The former category dominated in spring and autumn (58.8 %), whereas the latter prevailed in the cold half-year (65 %). Each category of strong wind occurred more commonly in northern and north-eastern Poland than anywhere else. In 13.5 % of reports of strong winds, information about damage was available – most frequently in winter and autumn and least frequently in spring. The most frequently reported damage and destruction involved buildings (residential, agricultural, churches, etc.) and forests. The availability of daily-resolution data significantly improved the reliability of results on strong wind occurrence, particularly for the mildest analysed category (fresh and strong breeze). The changes in frequency of strong wind events in Poland in the 17^th century were more similar to those observed in Northern than Southern Europe.

The paper presents a detailed analysis of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century, including their frequency, intensity, and impacts on the natural environment, society and economy. The analysis is solely based on available documentary evidence. Preliminary archival research allowed the construction of a comprehensive database of strong winds for Poland for the study period. The 542 weather notes were used to obtain the following information about strong winds: time, location/region, duration, and indexations of intensity, extent, and damage character. For the first time, 14 years of complete daily weather data were used to analyse the occurrence of strong winds. The methodology follows that utilised by Przybylak et al. (2025) for the analysis of strong winds prior to the 17^th century. The number of strong winds in Poland in the 17^th century reached 525, with the majority occurring in the second half of the century. In the annual cycle, strong winds were less frequent in summer, whereas the other seasons had similar frequencies. The wind category “fresh and strong breeze” occurred the most frequently (61.9 %), followed by “gales” (26.7 %). The former category dominated in spring and autumn (58.8 %), whereas the latter prevailed in the cold half-year (65 %). Each category of strong wind occurred more commonly in northern and north-eastern Poland than anywhere else. In 13.5 % of reports of strong winds, information about damage was available – most frequently in winter and autumn and least frequently in spring. The most frequently reported damage and destruction involved buildings (residential, agricultural, churches, etc.) and forests. The availability of daily-resolution data significantly improved the reliability of results on strong wind occurrence, particularly for the mildest analysed category (fresh and strong breeze). The changes in frequency of strong wind events in Poland in the 17^th century were more similar to those observed in Northern than Southern Europe.