Noelia Domínguez-Morueco

Pyrethroids are a major insecticide class, suitable for biomonitoring in humans. Due to similarities in structure and metabolic pathways, urinary metabolites are common to various active substances. A tiered approach is proposed for risk assessment. Tier I was a conservative screening for overall pyrethroid exposure, based on phenoxybenzoic acid metabolites. Subsequently, probabilistic approaches and more specific metabolites were used for refining the risk estimates. Exposure was based on 95th percentiles from HBM4EU aligned studies (2014–2021) covering children in Belgium, Cyprus, France, Israel, Slovenia, and The Netherlands and adults in France, Germany, Israel, and Switzerland. In all children populations, the 95th percentiles for 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) exceeded the screening value. The probabilistic refinement quantified the risk level of the most exposed population (Belgium) at 2% or between 1–0.1% depending on the assumptions. In the substance specific assessments, the 95th percentiles of urinary concentrations in the aligned studies were well below the respective human biomonitoring guidance values (HBM-GVs). Both information sets were combined for refining the combined risk. Overall, the HBM data suggest a low health concern, at population level, related to pyrethroid exposure for the populations covered by the studies, even though a potential risk for highly exposed children cannot be completely excluded. The proposed tiered approach, including a screening step and several refinement options, seems to be a promising tool of scientific and regulatory value in future.

A risk assessment (RA) was conducted to estimate the risk associated with methylmercury (MeHg) exposure of vulnerable European populations, using Human Biomonitoring (HBM) data. This RA was performed integrating published data from European HBM surveys and earlier EFSA approaches (EFSA 2012). Children/adolescents (3 to 17 years old) and women of childbearing age (18 to 50 years old) were selected as relevant study population groups for this RA. Two types of HBM datasets were selected: HBM studies (n = 18) with mercury (Hg) levels (blood and hair, total Hg and/or MeHg) in the general population in different EU countries and the DEMOCOPHES harmonized study in child–mother pairs (hair, total Hg) in 17 EU countries as a reference. Two approaches were included in the RA strategy: the first one was based on estimations of the fraction of children/adolescents and women of childbearing age, respectively, from the EU general population exceeding the HBM-I value established by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission, measured as Hazard Quotients (HQ); and the second approach was based on estimations of the fraction of the two population groups exceeding the Tolerable Weekly Intake (TWI) (or their equivalent to Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI)) defined by EFSA in 2012. The HQ approach showed that for both groups, the risk varies across EU countries and that some EU areas are close to or exceeding the exposure guidance values. This is the case of Spain and Portugal, which showed the highest HQ (GM and/or P95), probably due to their higher fish consumption. Results from the EFSA approach show that hair values of children/adolescents and women of childbearing age (both in selected HBM studies and in DEMOCOPHES study) are below the TDI of 1.9 µg/g; therefore, in general, the European population does not exceed the daily average/intake dose for MeHg and/or Hg. A possible risk underestimation was identified in our assessment since for many studies no data on P95 were available, causing loss of relevant information for risk characterization on the upper bound. In addition, data from other European countries also with high seafood consumption, such as France, Greece or Iceland, were not available. For this reason, further RA refinement is needed with harmonized and more widespread HBM data to account for differences in European exposure and associated risks, so that interventions to protect vulnerable citizens, can be applied.

The risk assessment of pesticide residues in food is a key priority in the area of food safety. Most jurisdictions have implemented pre-marketing authorization processes, which are supported by prospective risk assessments. These prospective assessments estimate the expected residue levels in food combining results from residue trials, resembling the pesticide use patterns, with food consumption patterns, according to internationally agreed procedures. In addition, jurisdictions such as the European Union (EU) have implemented large monitoring programs, measuring actual pesticide residue levels in food, and are supporting large-scale human biomonitoring programs for confirming the actual exposure levels and potential risk for consumers. The organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos offers an interesting case study, as in the last decade, its acceptable daily intake (ADI) has been reduced several times following risk assessments by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). This process has been linked to significant reductions in the use authorized in the EU, reducing consumers’ exposure progressively, until the final ban in 2020, accompanied by setting all EU maximum residue levels (MRL) in food at the default value of 0.01 mg/kg. We present a comparison of estimates of the consumer’s internal exposure to chlorpyrifos based on the urinary marker 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), using two sources of monitoring data: monitoring of the food chain from the EU program and biomonitoring of European citizens from the HB4EU project, supported by a literature search. Both methods confirmed a drastic reduction in exposure levels from 2016 onwards. The margin of exposure approach is then used for conducting retrospective risk assessments at different time points, considering the evolution of our understanding of chlorpyrifos toxicity, as well as of exposure levels in EU consumers following the regulatory decisions. Concerns are presented using a color code, and have been identified for almost all studies, particularly for the highest exposed group, but at different levels, reaching the maximum level, red code, for children in Cyprus and Israel. The assessment uncertainties are highlighted and integrated in the identification of levels of concern.

Psychoactive substances, including drugs such as psychotropic pharmaceuticals, illicit and legal drugs of abuse, and other substances of daily consumption, such as caffeine, are recognised as emerging pollutants. The aim of this study was to determine if these psychoactive substances can be transferred from the environment to the population through milk. Up to 40 psychoactive substances were analysed in various milk matrices, including breast milk, infant formula, and cow’s milk. As for breast milk samples, a self-reported survey was completed by each mother regarding consumption of psychoactive substances during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding. None of the investigated psychoactive substances were detected in any of the matrices analysed, with the exception of the stimulant caffeine, detected in breast milk samples. Cow’s milk and infant formula samples are safe for consumption, as far as presence of psychoactive substances is concerned. Despite that the concentrations of caffeine detected in breast milk samples in this study were high, they are within the limits that are considered safe for newborn feeding and breast milk donation.

The levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in 8 passive air samples (PAS) and 6 lichen transplants (Ramalina fastigiata) deployed for a period of 2 months in different zones of Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain), an area with an important number of chemical and petrochemical industries. The accumulated amount of the sum of the 16 PAHs ranged between 1363 to 7866 ng/sample in air samples. The highest concentration was found in the neighborhood of Puigdelfí (village of Perafort), in the vicinity of a big oil refinery and well under the potential influence of the petrochemical emissions. In lichen samples, the sum of the 16 PAHs ranged between 247 and 841 ng/g (dry weight), being the greatest value also observed in Puigdelfí. Data on the levels and profiles of PAHs in both passive monitoring methods were compared. A significant positive linear correlation was found between the concentrations of low molecular weight PAHs in lichens and the amounts accumulated in passive air samples (R = 0.827, P < 0.05), being especially significant the correlation of 4-ring PAHs (R = 0.941, P < 0.05). These results strongly suggest that lichens can be used to monitor gas-phase PAHs, providing data that can be quantitatively translated into equivalents for air.