Karyn Bischoff

Susceptibility of individuals and groups to toxicants depends on complex interactions involving the host, environment, and other exposures. Apiary diagnostic investigation and honey bee health are truly population medicine: the colony is the patient. Here we provide basic information on the application of toxicology to the testing of domestic honey bees, and, in light of recent research, expand on some of the challenges of interpreting analytical chemistry findings as they pertain to hive health. The hive is an efficiently organized system of wax cells used to store brood, honey, and bee bread, and is protected by the bee-procured antimicrobial compound propolis. Toxicants can affect individual workers outside or inside the hive, with disease processes that range from acute to chronic and subclinical to lethal. Toxicants can impact brood and contaminate honey, bee bread, and structural wax. We provide an overview of important natural and synthetic toxicants to which honey bees are exposed; behavioral, husbandry, and external environmental factors influencing exposure; short- and long-term impacts of toxicant exposure on individual bee and colony health; and the convergent impacts of stress, nutrition, infectious disease, and toxicant exposures on colony health. Current and potential future toxicology testing options are included. Common contaminants in apiary products consumed or used by humans (honey, wax, pollen), their sources, and the potential need for product testing are also noted.

The New York State (NYS) beekeeping industry generated >$11M worth of honey in 2020 and >$300M in pollination services to agriculture annually. Bees are frequently exposed to pesticides through foraging and husbandry practices. Lipophilic pesticides can remain in beeswax for extended periods. We analyzed for pesticides in wax comb samples collected from NYS apiaries at the end of the growing season, comparing residue numbers and concentrations among beekeepers of different operation scales: commercial beekeepers (>300 colonies), sideliners (50–299 colonies), and hobbyists (<50 colonies). We analyzed samples collected from 72 managed honey bee colonies for 92 insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Pesticides were detected in all samples and included 34 fungicides, 33 insecticides, and 22 herbicides. Each wax sample contained 7–35 different residues (x¯ = 17.8 residues). Wax from colonies managed by commercial beekeepers contained the most residues (x¯ = 21.9 residues), hobbyists were second (x¯ = 16.3 residues), and sideliners had the fewest (x¯ = 11.7 residues). Nearly all wax samples (98.6%) contained the pesticide synergist piperonyl butoxide, most samples (86%) contained common varroacides used to control honey bee parasites, including coumaphos and amitraz breakdown products, and 93.1% contained the fungicide difenoconazole. We detected 34 fungicides, 7 of which were found in 50% or more of the samples. We detected 22 herbicides. We found pesticide contamination of beeswax to be common, with commercial beekeepers experiencing the greatest contamination.

Marijuana toxicosis is typically seen by companion animal veterinarians. However, with increased marijuana availability, there is a greater potential for toxicosis in other species. Herein we describe a case of suspected marijuana toxicosis in a female and a male American Mammoth donkey, aged 8 y and 20 y, respectively, fed cannabis buds. Both cases were presented because of depression and lethargy. However, the jenny had ataxia, mild colic, tachycardia, tachypnea, and decreased tongue tone. Plasma samples from the jenny on presentation and 3 d following hospitalization were submitted to the Kansas State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory to be screened for cannabinoids using high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectroscopy (HPLC-MS/MS). A single serum sample from the jack was taken on presentation and submitted to the Animal Health Diagnostic Center at Cornell University for Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol analysis using HPLC-MS/MS. THC was detected in all samples. Clinical signs were noted 24–36 h after ingestion, which included mild-to-moderate neurologic deficits, mild colic, tachycardia, tachypnea, and decreased tongue tone. Both donkeys recovered uneventfully within 24 h of peak effects. Utilizing a cannabinoid screening assay in collaboration with a veterinary diagnostic laboratory may be useful when an equine practitioner suspects marijuana toxicosis in a patient.

Feed as a cause of poisoning in horses can occur on small or large scales. It is challenging to work up cases of suspected feed contamination, but there are resources available to veterinarians and owners. Feed contamination can be chemical or biological. This article focuses on and provides examples of chemical feed contamination including misformulation, adulteration, and natural contaminants. Additionally, recommendations for feed sampling and diagnostic submission, including legal documentation, are included.

Increased admissions occur in small animal veterinary emergency clinics during some holidays, and some of the increased caseload is due to ingestion of toxic substances. This report documents zinc toxicosis contributing to the death of a dog after ingestion of holiday tinsel garland.