Michelle Elizabeth Gahan

Law enforcement forensic intelligence is the accurate, timely and useful product of logically processing forensic case data for investigation and/or intelligence purposes and is, to some extent, an emerging discipline. In the military domain, intelligence has a long history and military organizations have forensic science capabilities. However, to date, military organizations have not formally implemented forensic intelligence models. Forensic science is an end-to-end process and forensic intelligence spans the continuum between forensic science informing law enforcement investigations or military intelligence through to prosecution in the criminal justice system. Hence, forensic intelligence can be consistent with military objectives and could be a valuable model for military organizations in the long-term. The purpose of this article is to review law enforcement forensic intelligence models and explore requirements for military forensic intelligence models. To achieve operational utility, a military forensic intelligence model needs to enable the provision of timely forensic intelligence to be fused with all-source intelligence. The right methodologies will preserve the forensic science rigor, which will balance the forensic intelligence needs with the criminal justice system standards. A principle-based approach to the development of a military forensic intelligence model can provide a flexible and adaptive model across the spectrum of military conflicts.

‘Make me comfortable’ were the last words of Sergeant First Class Randy Johnson of the United States 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment. The investigation into his murder would take seven years, span three countries, and involve forensic and technical exploitation analysis in the United States and the United Kingdom. The purpose of this case study is to discuss the unique aspects of battlefield forensic science and key factors that can lead to the prosecution of foreign terrorist fighters to meet obligations under United Nations Security Council Resolution 2396 (2017) and 2322 (2016) for member states to investigate foreign terrorist fighters.

Bacillus anthracis and Yersinia pestis are biological agents that pose an increasing concern to national security if deliberately disseminated. Hoax agents, including suspicious white powders and environmental bacterial species, can also cause disruption. In either scenario it is of high importance to rapidly and accurately identify any suspicious powder as hazardous or hoax. Protein profiling, using microfluidic capillary electrophoresis, provides a rapid (less than 40 minutes), reliable and field-based screening method. Two commonly encountered hoax agents, three Bacillus species (including B. anthracis Sterne strain), two Yersinia species and E. coli were profiled on the Experion™ System (Bio-Rad). Peak detection algorithms were developed for the identification of protein peaks in electropherograms. Boolean logic paths were then employed to predict the electrophoretic pattern of samples. Parameters assessed included variation within and between Experion™ Pro260 chips and the ability to discriminate between samples over time intervals, between operators and between field and laboratory analyses. Classification with optimal Boolean logic paths reported no misclassification with an accuracy of 100% for B. anthracis Sterne strain, B. thuringiensis (powder and culture-based), B. cereus and plain wheat flour. Overall there was 75% correct identification for the eight sample types tested.

Direct-to-PCR methodology adds samples directly to PCR tubes offering gains in efficiency and sensitivity. The approach has been applied to a variety of biological sources including blood, saliva, tissue, hair and nail. We added various preservative solutions to a range of biological samples to leech DNA into solution, whilst preserving at room temperature. Tubes containing ‘free DNA’ then followed automated workflows for amplification and capillary electrophoresis. Routine FASS-automated workflows (including DNA extraction and quantification) were compared with published direct-to-PCR methodology and automated amplification of an aliquot of preservative solution. Applying preservative solutions to ~30-year-old blood stains stored at room temperature resulted in recovery of a larger quantity of DNA and more alleles (using PowerPlex 21) when compared with routine automated typing. Trials were extended to blood, saliva, hair and nail, mimicking ante-mortem samples collected in a disaster victim identification effort. Despite slightly lower allelic recovery, the faster processing times, lower costs and storage potential offers advantages for the processing of ante-mortem samples.

Massively parallel sequencing (MPS) of identity informative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (IISNPs) enables hundreds of forensically relevant markers to be analysed simultaneously. Generating DNA sequence data enables more detailed analysis including identification of sequence variations between individuals. The GeneRead DNAseq 140 IISNP MPS panel (QIAGEN) has been evaluated on both the MiSeq (Illumina) and Ion PGM™ (Applied Biosystems) MPS platforms using the GeneRead DNAseq Targeted Panels V2 library preparation workflow (QIAGEN). The aims of this study were to (1) determine if the GeneRead DNAseq panel is effective for identity testing by assessing deviation from Hardy-Weinberg (HWE) and pairwise linkage equilibrium (LE); (2) sequence samples with the GeneRead DNAseq panel on the Ion PGM™ using the QIAGEN workflow and assess specificity, sensitivity and accuracy; (3) assess the efficacy of adding biological samples directly to the GeneRead DNAseq PCR, without prior DNA extraction; and (4) assess the effect of varying coverage and allele frequency thresholds on genotype concordance. Analyses of the 140 SNPs for HWE and LE using Fisher’s exact tests and the sequential Bonferroni correction revealed that one SNP was out of HWE in the Japanese population and five SNP combinations were commonly out of LE in 13 of 14 populations. The panel was sensitive down to 0.3125 ng of DNA input. A direct-to-PCR approach (without DNA extraction) produced highly concordant genotypes. The setting of appropriate allele frequency thresholds is more effective for reducing erroneous genotypes than coverage thresholds.

The Improvised Explosive Device (IED) threat faced by coalition partners in Iraq and Afghanistan required concepts of operations to identify threat actors, network analysis to attack the network, and counter-IED strategies to defeat the devices. Forensic science was employed beyond its traditional law enforcement investigation and criminal justice objectives, and provided a capability for military organizations to help to counter IEDs. Forensic science in support of the expeditionary force on the battlefield is referred to as expeditionary forensic science, which is not well understood outside of the military domain. Military forensic science could be considered the black sheep of the forensic family as it is often left out or not considered alongside traditional forensic science. The purpose of this paper and plenary address, presented at the Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society (ANZFSS) 24th International Symposium, is to provide the broader forensic science community with a better understanding of military expeditionary forensic science. The aim is to promote greater partnerships between law enforcement, intelligence, the criminal justice system, and military forensic science as part of the broader forensic science ‘system of systems’. Abbreviation: System of systems (SOS); improvised explosive devices (IED)