Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara

The Pelagos Sanctuary Agreement, which entered into force in 2002, arose from recognition that marine mammals inhabiting Mediterranean high seas required protection from increasing human pressures. The Sanctuary’s establishment, largely in areas beyond national jurisdiction, was enabled by revision of a Protocol to the Barcelona Convention. Over the past 25 years, the ecological and governance contexts have changed substantially. Fishery impacts have declined following a driftnet ban, but maritime traffic, underwater noise, plastic pollution, and offshore wind farm development have intensified, while climate-driven change is emerging as a major threat. The area’s global significance has been recognised through its inclusion within EBSAs and IMMAs. The policy framework has also evolved with the adoption of ACCOBAMS, the Kunming–Montreal GBF, and the designation of a PSSA. To remain effective, the Pelagos Agreement must adapt, strengthen responses to emerging pressures, and extend protection to Spanish waters to ensure conservation of pelagic habitats.

The Mediterranean Sea provides habitat for a diverse assemblage of marine species, including 14 resident species of cetacean, 3 species of turtle and the Mediterranean monk seal. Surrounded by densely populated coastlines, marine megafauna in the region are exposed to multiple anthropogenic threats. Alongside a growing awareness of these threats, and national, EU and international legal frameworks to conserve these species and their habitats, there is increasing pressure to exploit hydrocarbon deposits in the region. The exploration and extraction of oil and gas require a precautionary approach to allow effective protection and, where possible, mitigation of impacts on marine life. This paper examines contentious case studies from the Mediterranean where best practice to mitigate harmful effects has not been followed. Even where these failings are not unequivocally in breach of legal obligations, they demonstrate unethical conduct. Recommendations to improve mitigation are presented, including the need to (1) adequately consider the propagation of impacts into local protected areas, (2) update impact assessments (including acoustic modelling) when planned activities change significantly, (3) make documents and timings public prior to starting harmful activities, (4) demonstrate that seismic survey operators are using the lowest possible source levels and number of shots to meet objectives, (5) provide stronger incentives for industry to invest in risk reduction (including a significant increase in financial responsibility), (6) ensure regulatory authorities establish that the relevant guidelines are being followed and (7) make survey reports summarising encounters with marine megafauna publicly accessible in a timely fashion.

Migratory species connect our world both biologically and politically. This spatial and temporal linkage between breeding and non-breeding areas is known as migratory connectivity, which underpins the population persistence of some of the most charismatic species in our oceans. International conventions play a crucial role for migratory species conservation by bringing together nations to respond to transboundary environmental challenges. In recent years, area-based conservation has become a notable focus in several of these multilateral agreements. Targets for protecting 30% of land and sea by 2030 (“30 by 30”) from the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) and the push for new area-based management tools from the recently ratified High Seas Treaty have resulted in significant international momentum to establish marine protected areas (MPAs). It is therefore particularly timely to identify the best ways to effectively leverage this momentum for ensuring marine migratory species and connectivity are incorporated into future protected area design. For migratory species whose population persistence depends on connectivity between key spatially explicit life stages, disconnected protection can mean ineffective protection. We propose a new framework for evaluating protected area coverage of important migratory life history sites at the network level. Our framework defines three classifications - 1) symmetrically protected - where all connected migratory sites are adequately covered by marine protected areas; 2) asymmetrically protected - where only some sites are met with adequate protection; and 3) none - where no migratory sites are protected. We apply this framework to assess protection coverage of important areas delineated by species specialists and marine managers such as Important Marine Mammal Areas and Key Biodiversity Areas. These datasets are publicly accessible and policy-oriented, and provide a global-level overview to help target research and conservation efforts. This analysis will unveil where migratory marine megafauna are being insufficiently protected, critical knowledge gaps on currently available information on marine connectivity, and opportunities for high-impact transboundary collaboration. This framework will provide governments, corporations, and other stakeholders an early assessment of responsibility for migratory marine species conservation - providing a much-needed tool to better understand how we can better protect our vulnerable ocean wanderers.

Marine megafauna species are affected by a wide range of anthropogenic threats. To evaluate the risk of such threats, species’ vulnerability to each threat must first be determined. We build on the existing threats classification scheme and ranking system of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species by assessing the vulnerability of 256 marine megafauna species to 23 at‐sea threats. The threats we considered included individual fishing gear types, climate‐change‐related subthreats not previously assessed, and threats associated with coastal impacts and maritime disturbances. Our ratings resulted in 70 species having high vulnerability ( v > 0.778 out of 1) to at least 1 threat, primarily drifting longlines, temperature extremes, or fixed gear. These 3 threats were also considered to have the most severe effects (i.e., steepest population declines). Overall, temperature extremes and plastics and other solid waste were rated as affecting the largest proportion of populations. Penguins, pinnipeds, and polar bears had the highest vulnerability to temperature extremes. Bony fishes had the highest vulnerability to drifting longlines and plastics and other solid waste; pelagic cetaceans to 4 maritime disturbance threats; elasmobranchs to 5 fishing threats; and flying birds to drifting longlines and 2 maritime disturbance threats. Sirenians and turtles had the highest vulnerability to at least one threat from all 4 categories. Despite not necessarily having severe effects for most taxonomic groups, temperature extremes were rated among the top threats for all taxa except bony fishes. The vulnerability scores we provide are an important first step in estimating the risk of threats to marine megafauna. Importantly, they help differentiate scope from severity, which is key to identifying threats that should be prioritized for mitigation.

Mediterranean monk seals (Monachus monachus) are the world's rarest seal species, with fewer than 1000 individuals remaining across fragmented subpopulations. Monitoring this species is challenging due to their low densities and difficult-to-access habitats. Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) data can be used to detect small numbers of animals over large areas, but for effective long-term PAM, it is essential to characterize the species' vocalizations throughout its range. This study provides a comprehensive description of the monk seal vocal repertoire in the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago, Greece, and the first published documentation of the species vocalizing underwater. Acoustic recorders collected continuous data over 16 days during the breeding season in 2021. We identified 3442 calls, 1855 of which were determined to be high-quality and classified into ten call types within three broader categories. Video footage collected in 2019 and 2021 documented the seals producing five common call types, which comprised ∼87% of the recorded calls. Our findings offer insights into the structure of the monk seal vocal repertoire and lay the groundwork for long-term monitoring for this rare species using PAM, which could be an important tool for monitoring monk seals going forwards.

The Important Marine Mammal Area (IMMA) program was launched in 2016 by the IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force as a response to the conservation crisis in the protection of marine mammals and wider global ocean biodiversity. IMMAs identify discrete portions of habitat, important for one or more marine mammal species, which have the potential to be delineated and managed for conservation. Scientific experts identify IMMAs during regional workshops based on criteria covering critical aspects of marine mammal biology, ecology and population structure.Between 2016-2024, eleven expert workshops - engaging more than 300 experts - have resulted in the identification of 280 IMMAs located in over 100 countries or territories across 80% of the world’s ocean. Candidate IMMAs undergo independent peer review before acceptance and are then disseminated via a searchable database and dedicated online e-Atlas. IMMAs identified to date provide important habitats for 93 of the 135 recognised marine mammal species. Around 69% of IMMAs in the network were identified based on habitat for marine mammal species that are threatened on the IUCN Red List. Approximately 58% of IMMA surface areas occur within Exclusive Economic Zone waters, while 42% fall within areas beyond national jurisdiction.IMMAs are increasingly utilised in environmental impact assessments, marine spatial planning exercises, maritime traffic routing, and international, national, and regional conservation, policy and management initiatives. These include those governed through the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the design and management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and the development of MPA networks. The Task Force is working toward completing a global network of IMMAs that will contribute to the Global Biodiversity Framework (Target 3) of protecting 30% of the ocean by 2030 and to the identification of areas to be protected based on the UN BBNJ Treaty.

Sharks, rays, and chimaeras (hereafter ‘sharks’) face a high risk of extinction. Populations of many species of sharks and rays have declined by over 70–90% in last few decades. Immediate action is required to halt population declines and allow for species recovery. Area-based measures are key for biodiversity conservation but commonly do not focus on sharks, and existing ones often fail to provide them adequate protection. Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework commits nations to conserving 30% of coastal and marine areas, “especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity”. With that in mind, the Important Shark and Ray Areas (ISRA) approach was developed to ensure sharks are considered and represented in conservation planning approaches. Since 2022, over 600 ISRAs have been delineated across six regions of the world. Analysis have now been undertaken to understand overlap with existing marine protected areas (MPAs), how ISRAs can be integrated into Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), and what fisheries management tools can be used at the site level. In several regions (e.g., Central and South American Pacific and Western Indian Ocean), existing MPAs overlap by less than 7% with ISRAs, highlighting poor MPA coverage for these species. Without management measures to reduce fisheries mortality, preventing further losses and species recovery will not be possible. As nations move towards achieving the 30x30 targets by expanding MPA coverage, it is critical that sharks and their important habitats are considered and incorporated in national marine spatial planning processes, guided by robust scientific data.

The North-Western Mediterranean Sea is affected by intense human use (e.g., shipping, fishing, recreation, coastal urbanisation and industries, naval activities) which impacts on marine species survival. Marine mammal ecological and conservation science has made significant progress since the Pelagos Agreement came into force in 2002, and this now can inform better policies to be developed to mitigate such impacts, facilitating the well-being and recovery of Mediterranean marine mammals while allowing for the unavoidable human practices in the area to occur with the smallest possible environmental detriment. Within that context, conservation measures that generate multi-environmental benefits are to be explored and promoted, while also considering socio-economic impacts.Shipping traffic has steadily increased in the Mediterranean over the past 50 years, as well as noise emissions, reported to have doubled between 2014 and 2019 in EU waters. The pressure it causes on marine mammals is assessed and identified at the EU, Barcelona Convention and IMO levels. Some measures, such as reduced vessel speed and others, have also been identified as generating multi-benefits by reducing greenhouse gas, ocean noise emissions and the risk of vessel strikes. Through ACCOBAMS’ support for regionally coordinated research and advocacy, such measures are more effectively promoted and implemented across member states.In addition, the rise in shipping traffic also increased the number of lethal collisions with cetaceans, significantly affecting the endangered fin and sperm whale Mediterranean sub-populations. This led to the recent establishment of the North-Western Mediterranean Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which includes two recognized SPAMIs and MPAs. Associated Protective Measures (APM) include re-routing, reporting measures, and speed reduction and smart technology alerting ships of the presence of cetaceans. The application of these recommendations requires mapping of the critical habitats and fin and sperm whales’ density and fine-scale movements, and an increased effort on the robust assessment of the number of collisions from stranding programs. Robust data will allow to advocate for mandatory speed reduction (up to a maximum speed of 10 knots, following existing recommendations) and rerouting from the highest density areas. Quantitatively monitoring each vessel's compliance with the suggested measures within the PSSA boundaries is an essential step of an effective mitigation effort and will facilitate the robust assessment of the Associated Protective Measures. By promoting a unified, regional response, ACCOBAMS, together with relevant stakeholders, can assist countries to ensure that these protective measures to reduce collision risk are consistently applied and monitored.The Pelagos Sanctuary could be used as a laboratory to test recommendations at a large scale, become a pioneer area for meeting conservation objectives and draw conclusions on their effectiveness and inform decision-making at the IMO, the Barcelona Convention and the EU and its Member States, towards the implementation of the MSFD.

To investigate the seasonal migratory behaviour of spinetail devil rays, Mobula mobular, across the Mediterranean Sea, we used satellite telemetry to track nine individuals between 2016 and 2021. The species is listed as Endangered in the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species and appears to be most vulnerable to fishing impacts when gathering in large assemblages. The only known targeted devil ray fishery harvests significant numbers each winter off Gaza. While broadly distributed during summer across the more productive areas of the western and central portions of the Mediterranean, most tracked rays showed an eastward movement towards eastern Levantine waters during the second half of the year. One individual, tagged off Gaza in March 2016, travelled to Spain before swimming back to the Levantine Sea one year later. Our study corroborates the notion that the species undergoes predictable basin-wide migrations across the Mediterranean Sea, favouring the Levantine waters in late winter and early spring, thanks to the subregion’s milder sea surface temperatures in that time of the year compared to the rest of the Mediterranean. Understanding the species’ seasonal movement pattern in the Mediterranean could support the implementation of robust place-based conservation measures, especially in light of unregulated fishing pressure.

Manta and devil rays are a diverse group of globally endangered elasmobranchs with a complicated taxonomic history. The emergence of genomic techniques has significantly improved our understanding of species units in the group, yet there is one species of devil ray for which uncertainty remains. Mobula rochebrunei (Vaillant, 1879), a pygmy devil ray inhabiting tropical waters of the eastern Atlantic, was recently synonymised with Mobula hypostoma (Bancroft, 1831), its western Atlantic counterpart. However, since there have been no sightings of the species in West and Central Africa for several decades, the revision was based on limited data, and further investigation was recommended. A dedicated monitoring effort in Cameroon recently led to the rare discovery of three pygmy devil rays, providing a unique opportunity to build on recent work. We use a combination of MinION sequencing and morphometric analysis to provide confirmation that pygmy devil rays on both sides of the Atlantic constitute the same species. Crucially, our work highlights the persistence of pygmy devil rays in West Africa despite concerns of disappearance and emphasises the need for urgent conservation action to avoid local extinction.