Agnieszka Szarkowska

Watching subtitled video requires attention distribution between moving images, speech, and written text, yet little is known about the earliest stages of subtitle processing. This study examines how viewer (L1 vs L2) and subtitle length influence subtitle skipping, two latency measures (time to first fixation and processing latency, the latter indexing the initiation of reading after initial corrective saccades), and early saccadic eye movements at subtitle onset (refixations, regressions, standard and corrective forward saccades, and vertical corrective saccades). In an eye-tracking experiment, ninety-five hearing participants (37 L1-English and 58 L2-English) watched English-language clips with same-language subtitles. Subtitles shorter than 15 characters were more likely to be skipped in both language groups, raising concerns about their readability. Both latency measures increased with subtitle length. Additionally, L2 viewers moved their gaze to longer subtitles more slowly than L1 viewers. L2 viewers also produced fewer corrective forward saccades and more refixations than L1 viewers. Finally, longer subtitles reduced the likelihood of refixations and vertical corrective saccades in both groups. These findings demonstrate that the earliest stages of subtitle processing are constrained by both subtitle length and viewer language, with implications for subtitling guidelines, accessibility, and language-learning applications.

1. Subtitled video content is consumed worldwide, a trend fuelled by the rise of streaming platforms such as Amazon Prime Video, Disney+ and Netflix. As demand for subtitles in digital media grows,...

The growing popularity of intralingual English subtitles in audiovisual content is transforming how both native and non-native English speakers engage with media. This trend has been accompanied by rising subtitle speeds, driven by global streaming platforms and social media, where a greater reliance on automation for subtitle creation often results in verbatim, excessively fast subtitles. This study investigates the impact of subtitle speed on L1-English and L2-English (L1-Polish) viewers, focusing on individual characteristics that impact subtitle processing. We tested 83 participants (33 L1 and 50 L2 speakers) while they watched English-language videos with intralingual subtitles. Eye movements were monitored to measure early and late stages of the reading process, word skipping, and proportional time spent in the subtitle area. Results indicate that L2 speakers were more affected by faster subtitles than L1 speakers: they spent more time in the subtitle area, skipped fewer words, and had lower recall accuracy. Additionally, factors such as age, working memory, previous exposure to audiovisual materials, and familiarity with subtitling were found to influence the viewing process. This paper presents the findings and assesses their implications for future subtitling research and practices.

The rise of social media platforms, including TikTok, has given way to new and distinct subtitle styles that significantly differ from traditional subtitling norms. However, little is known about what viewers think about these styles or how they affect engagement. This article presents the results of two studies examining the impact of subtitle style on user engagement on TikTok. Study 1, based on an online survey of 171 Polish participants, explored preferences for different subtitle styles on TikTok: traditional subtitles versus those featuring emojis and non-standard typography (i.e., lacking punctuation and capitalisation). The findings revealed a clear preference for subtitles that omit punctuation and capitalisation while including emojis. Study 2 further investigated how these stylistic features influence viewer engagement with subtitled TikTok videos by analysing metrics such as likes, shares, and comments. Videos with non-standard typography attracted higher engagement than those with traditional subtitles. These findings are discussed in the context of digital communication and contemporary subtitling practices, highlighting significant differences between social media subtitles and traditional subtitling on TV and streaming platforms. Lay summary This paper presents the results of two studies aimed to test if subtitle style has an effect on how users engage with TikTok videos. Study 1, which was an online survey with 171 participants, tested user preferences for different TikTok subtitle styles: traditional subtitles with no errors or emojis and subtitles with linguistic errors, such as missing punctuation and capitalisation, and using emojis. The findings showed that viewers preferred subtitles without punctuation marks or capital letters, but with emojis. Study 2 explored how these features influence viewer engagement with subtitled TikTok videos by measuring metrics such as likes, shares, and comments. Videos with incorrect punctuation and capitalisation had higher engagement than those with traditional, linguistically correct subtitles. These findings are discussed in the context of current subtitling practices, highlighting significant differences between social media subtitles and traditional subtitling.

The subtitling industry has witnessed remarkable growth in recent years, driven by the upsurge in streaming content. To streamline the subtitling process, international streaming companies turned to using subtitling templates in their multilingual workflows. However, the introduction of templates has brought about a new set of challenges, affecting the skills required of subtitlers and the quality of the resulting translations. In this study, we use semi-structured interviews with professional subtitlers to gauge their perspective on working with contemporary template-based workflows and assess the impact of templates on the translation process and the quality of the final product. We were particularly interested in how templates influence translation, aligning with our central research question, whether templates kill fundamental subtitling principles. The findings reveal that subtitlers do not inherently oppose templates but emphasise the necessity for high-quality templates and annotations, especially for pivot workflows. Key concerns include issues with quality, tight deadlines, and inadequate compensation, along with the way in which template-based workflows are implemented. The study shows the importance of a collective commitment from all industry stakeholders to ensure high-quality outcomes and to position templates as valuable tools in the subtitling industry. The insights gained from the study are relevant to enhancing the visibility of subtitlers within the industry, as well as for evaluating the current state of the industry and establishing the foundation for identifying best practices. Lay summary The subtitling industry has seen significant growth, largely due to the increase in streaming content. To make translating subtitles more efficient, international streaming companies have started using templates. However, this has brought new challenges, affecting the skills subtitlers need and the quality of translations they produce. In our study, we interviewed professional subtitlers to understand their perspective on using these modern template-based workflows and to see how templates affect the translation process and the quality of the final product. We were particularly interested in how templates impact both the translation process and the quality of the final product, which aligns with the central question of our paper: are templates killing fundamental subtitling principles? Our findings show that subtitlers don’t dislike templates, but they stress the importance of having high-quality templates. Some main concerns include problems with template quality, tight deadlines, and inadequate pay, as well as how template-based workflows are put into practice. This study emphasizes the need for everyone in the industry to work together to ensure high-quality results and to establish templates as valuable tools in the subtitling field. The insights from this study can help make subtitlers more visible in the industry, evaluate the current state of the field, and lay the foundation for best practices.

Every day, millions of viewers worldwide engage with subtitled content, and an increasing number choose to watch without sound. In this mixed-methods study, we examine the impact of sound presence or absence on the viewing experience of both first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) viewers when they watch subtitled videos. We explore this novel phenomenon through comprehension and recall post-tests, self-reported cognitive load, immersion, and enjoyment measures, as well as gaze pattern analysis using eye tracking. We also investigate viewers’ motivations for opting for audiovisual content without sound and explore how the absence of sound impacts their viewing experience, using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Our goal is to ascertain whether these effects are consistent among L2 and L1 speakers from different language varieties. To achieve this, we tested L1-British English, L1-Australian English and L2-English (L1-Polish) language speakers (n = 168) while they watched English-language audiovisual material with English subtitles with and without sound. The findings show that when watching videos without sound, viewers experienced increased cognitive load, along with reduced comprehension, immersion and overall enjoyment. Examination of participants’ gaze revealed that the absence of sound significantly affected the viewing experience, increasing the need for subtitles and thus increasing the viewers’ propensity to process them more thoroughly. The absence of sound emerged as a global constraint that made reading more effortful. Triangulating data from multiple sources made it possible to tap into some of the metacognitive strategies employed by viewers to maintain comprehension in the absence of sound. We discuss the implications within the context of the growing trend of watching subtitled videos without sound, emphasising its potential impact on cognitive processes and the viewing experience.

Existing research shows that identical cognates are read more quickly than noncognates. However, most studies focused on words presented in isolation or embedded in sentences. To address this gap, our exploratory eye-tracking study is the first to investigate the processing of cognates and noncognates in English subtitles. First, we tested whether cognates differ from noncognates in terms of word processing. Second, we explored whether gradual changes in the amount of cross-linguistic overlap predict cognate processing (and potentially learning). We recorded the eye movements of 35 L1-Polish adult participants with high L2-English proficiency while they watched videos with English subtitles displayed at three different speeds. The mixed-model analyses showed that cognates and noncognates are processed for longer in slower subtitles than in faster subtitles. Also, we found no difference in processing between cognates and noncognates. However, more similar cognates were processed longer than less similar cognates, except for identical cognates (e.g., Polish/English “minus”), which were processed the fastest. The discussion addresses several implications for L2 lexical learning via audiovisual materials and makes some recommendations for future research.