Bockline Omedo Bebe

Seasonal water stress is increasingly recognised as a major constraint to livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in smallholder dairy goat production systems that depend on rain-fed resources. This study assessed the influence of seasonal water stress on direct water use and milk production performance of dairy goats under contrasting highland and lowland ecosystems in Embu County, Kenya. The study employed a cross-sectional survey involving 196 smallholder dairy goat farms, which was conducted in the Runyenjes (highland) and Mbeere North (lowland) sub-counties. Data on direct water use volume, water costs, and milk production during normal, prolonged drought, and excessive rainfall seasons were collected using structured questionnaires. Effects of season, production system, ecosystem, and their interactions were analysed using General Linear Models. The results of the study showed substantial variation in direct water use among farms, ranging from approximately 22.7 to 41.8 litres per farm per day. Seasonal effects on water volume used were not significant (P > 0.05), whereas the ecosystem significantly influenced water use (P < 0.05), with farms in the highland ecosystem using more water than those in the lowland ecosystem. Water costs differed significantly across seasons and production systems (P < 0.05), with costs being highest during normal seasons. Milk yield varied according to ecosystem and stage of lactation. Goats reared in the lowland ecosystem produced significantly more milk than those in the highland ecosystem (P < 0.05). Seasonal effects on milk production were not significant, although prolonged drought and excessive rainfall tended to influence production patterns. The findings demonstrate that ecosystem characteristics exert a stronger influence on dairy goat water use and productivity than seasonal conditions alone. Strengthening climate-smart water management interventions and ecosystem-specific dairy goat production strategies will enhance the resilience and sustainability of smallholder dairy goat farming under increasing climate variability.

In Kenya, demand for goat meat is projected to continue rising and farmers in low input agropastoral production system are responding to the growing demand by increasing goat population, perpetuating rise in absolute and intensity of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study assessed influence of improved husbandry on protein food production and GHG emissions. The study was conducted in agropastoral meat goat system in Baringo county where a random sample of 124 smallholder meat goat farmers was interviewed through a cross-sectional farm survey. Descriptive statistics from primary data collected in cross-sectional farm survey was the model base input for simulation modelling using GLEAM-i tool to estimate GHG emissions and productivity. Referenced on average flock performance as base situation, improved husbandry was reflected as change in flock composition towards fewer adult males, increase in slaughter (market) weight and survival rate of young stock, earlier age at first kidding, shorter kidding interval and longer productive life. Improvement in base flock performance value was either to 25 ^th or 75th percentile value to objectively reflect potential attainable improvement in the flock. Relative to the base situation, fewer adult males in the flock resulted in 26.9% increase in productivity but absolute emissions increased by 10.1% while emission intensity reduced by 13.4%. Improving reproductive performance increased protein production by 8.4% with a reduction of 8.3% in emission intensity and 1.1% in absolute emissions. Increasing the survival of young animals and slaughter weight increased protein production by 8.4% with an increase of 3.8% in absolute emissions and a reduction of 4.1% in emission intensity. These findings show that improved flock composition, by keeping fewer adult males and more adult females have a larger potential of increasing protein production and reducing emission intensity, implying that regular off- take of unproductive animal classes in the flock can enhance sustainability of smallholder meat goat production systems. The results will guide extension service providers and policy makers in developing climate-smart interventions for increasing goat meat production while reducing emission intensity.

The aim of this perspective is to further the discussion on regenerating our food system, by describing our future food system (FS) vision to be a regenerative, inclusive food system (RIFS) and providing guiding principles that work within an interactive dynamic framework to achieve this vision. The five RIFS principles outlined in this paper are intended to support and guide place-based processes for regenerating our FS. These are: (1) sense of place and purpose; (2) socio-ecological design for innovation; (3) building connections; (4) fair, just and inclusive transitions; and (5) design for renewal (it is a living process). The use of the five principles are at the heart of RIFS, supporting transformative, experiential learning and guiding the actions and responsibility of all actors involved in FS transformation towards RIFS. We argue that when all these principles occur in a transformation process, this provides the fertile ground for achieving a RIFS’s vision. Graphical abstract

The Kenyan dairy sector plays a crucial role in the national economy, yet it faces challenges related to the low-value utilization of by-products such as whey, leading to economic inefficiencies and environmental burdens. This study applies an expanded cost–benefit analysis (CBA) framework that integrates environmental and social externalities—using a value-transfer approach—to evaluate the economic feasibility of whey valorisation at selected dairy-processing facilities in Kenya.By systematically assessing production, processing, and marketing costs against both market and non-market benefits, this research provides data-driven insights for policymakers, investors, and industry stakeholders. The study examines how dairy processors convert whey into high-value products, including whey yogurt, smoothies, and ricotta cheese, all while achieving financial viability, using net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and benefit-cost ratio (BCR). Sensitivity analysis using Monte Carlo simulations confirms the robustness of financial outcomes, while the inclusion of externalities—greenhouse-gas reduction, wastewater pollution avoidance, renewable energy recovery, and rural employment creation—raises total social net benefits by approximately 12–18%.By positioning whey valorisation within a circular economy framework, this study highlights the potential to minimize waste and advance Kenya’s climate, food-security, and bioeconomy goals. The findings present a strong case for targeted policy measures, including investment incentives, cooperative processing models, and green-technology support and certification, to scale sustainable whey valorisation. Overall, this research demonstrates how internalizing environmental and social externalities strengthens the business and policy rationale for a low-carbon, inclusive dairy transformation.

The dairy sector in Kenya is constrained by recurrent shocks spanning from climate change, which adversely intensifies production risks, to market risks coupled with poor infrastructural and technological advancement and institutional and financial risks. A move towards a robust, reliable, adaptive intensification and resilient dairy sector would ensure sustainability of the dairy farms in the face of these constant and intense shocks. This study examined the resilience capacities of 120 typical and entrepreneurial farms in Nyandarua County, with advanced dairy growth stage, and Narok County, with dairy growth at its inception phase. It is assumed that typical and entrepreneurial farms have different resilience capacities, with entrepreneurial farms perceived to be richly endowed and skilled, conferring higher resilience scores than typical dairy farms, which are also affected by environmental contexts. The resilience theory provides a platform for comprehending how farming systems react to risks and shocks through the three resilience frameworks, namely absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities. The study adopted a comparative cross-sectional design, aiming to explore differences in risk perception and coping strategies between typical and entrepreneurial dairy farmers. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed statistically. Using the stratified sampling method, cooperatives were identified, and a list of farmers selling to the cooperatives was categorized as typical if they sold up to 50 liters of milk with no increase over the last 5 years. Otherwise, they were entrepreneurial farmers if they consistently sold over 50 liters of milk with growth over the same period. Indicators for resilience were captured by use of indicators for absorptive, adaptive, and transformative resilience capacities. The indicators were first standardized and then weighted through Principle Component Analysis (PCA) using SPSS version 23 and finally fitted into a fractional regression model to generate the resilience indices. Absorptive and adaptive capacities were weak in both farm groups, with information systems, social networks, and human capital indicators being underutilized, whereas physical assets contributed significantly to these frameworks. Greater transformative capacity was demonstrated by entrepreneurial farms than in typical farms, with institutional and infrastructural indicators contributing significantly to the index. The overall resilience for both farm types was below 0.5, indicating an overall systemic vulnerability. Entrepreneurial farms had statistically higher resilience scores than typical farms. Enhancing resilience across the two farm types calls for strengthened human capital, social capital, extension services, and investment in infrastructure, which supports dairy farming.

The rising demand for animal-source food (ASF) is driving the intensification of livestock systems, increasing the need for high-quality feed resources, such as concentrate feed. This trend may reduce circularity through increased feed-food competition and disrupt nutrient cycles. To examine these dynamics, the present exploratory descriptive study assessed the circularity of livestock diets, using feed-food competition and reliance on external feed inputs as proxies. Diet compositions were characterized through interviews with livestock farmers (dairy cattle, dairy goats, pigs, and poultry), and the origins of external feed ingredients were traced through follow-up interviews with feed suppliers. Concentrate feeds had the highest inclusion levels in monogastric diets, indicating a strong dependency on off-farm sourced ingredients, while ruminants primarily relied on on-farm crop residues and feed crops. Poultry diets contained substantial amounts of food-competing ingredients (i.e. maize grain, fish meal, and soybean meal) resulting in higher human-edible protein (HeP) and human-edible energy (HeE) proportions compared to dairy goats, pigs, and dairy cattle (0.73, 0.24, 0.23, 0.09 HeP; and 0.62, 0.09, 0.14, 0.05 HeE, respectively). Protein-rich concentrates were mostly imported from the region (e.g. Tanzania, Uganda), while energy-rich ingredients were sourced nationally, regionally (i.e. East Africa), and globally (e.g. Ukraine). Feed additives (e.g. minerals and vitamins) were sourced globally. The widespread use of food-competing ingredients and reliance on external feed inputs underscores the need to shift to locally available, non-food-competing feed resources, especially in the poultry sector.

Dairy farming in Kenya faces multiple risks that impact production performance. Risk perception is likely to differ between typical and entrepreneurial farms, and the difference likely manifests in their choice of risk coping strategies. This study examined how typical and entrepreneurial farms perceive and cope with risks in Nyandarua County - representing a more developed dairy sector, and Narok-Bomet Counties, representing a less developed dairy sector. It is assumed that typical and entrepreneurial farms perceive and cope with risks differently with entrepreneurial farms adopting sophisticated and resource intensive strategies. Using stratified sampling method, cooperatives were identified and a list of farmers selling to the cooperatives were categorized as typical if they sold up to 50 litres of milk with no increase over the last 5 years. Otherwise were entrepreneurial farmers if they consistently sold over 50 litres of milk with growth over the same period. A cross sectional survey was done across 120 farmers out of whom 56 were typical and 64 entrepreneurial where each farmer was asked to list top three severe risks and the coping strategies per risk. Data analysis used Microsoft Excel and SPSS version 23. Risk perception indices revealed that both typical and entrepreneurial farmers considered market price volatility (0.375, 0.346) the most significant risk, followed by production-related threats such as disease (0.116, 0.143), feed scarcity due to limited land (0.158, 0.078) and due to extreme weather (0.0833, 0.1016), poor genetics and reproduction (0.027, 0.094) and difficulties in accessing inputs and services (0.131, 0.125). Through Principal Component Analysis (PCA), key coping strategies to these risks were identified in typical farms to reflect reliance on modest innovations, local network and practical responses aligned with available assets. In contrast, coping strategies in entrepreneurial farms were proactive investment in technologies, innovations and partnerships.

In peri-urban smallholder dairy herds, farmers face challenges in drying off cows due to a lack of evidence-based recommendations. This study examined the associations between cow drying-off practices, mean milk yield at drying off and during early successive lactation, and the odds of mastitis and udder leakage cases in herds around Nakuru city, Kenya. A cross-sectional survey of 232 cows across 172 herds was conducted. Mean milk yield was determined using a general linear model, while the odds ratios for mastitis and udder leakage were estimated using a binary logistic regression model, with drying-off practice, cow breed, and dairy management intensification as explanatory variables. All the three explanatory variables were significantly associated (p<0.05) with mean milk yield at drying off, early successive lactation, and the occurrence of mastitis and udder leakages. Cessation of milking (57.3%) was more common than abrupt cessation (42.7%). Mean milk yield was 2.6 liters/day at drying off and 13.4 liters/day during early successive lactation. Teat sealants were applied to cows producing more than 5 liters/day, while gradual reduction in milking, complete cessation of milking, or dry-cow therapy was used for cows producing less than 3 liters/day. During early successive lactation, cows dried off using teat sealant, salt application, stopping concentrate feeding, or gradual reduction in milking produced more milk (14 liters/day) than those dried off by abrupt cessation or dry-cow therapy (10-12 liters/day).Relative to abrupt cessation, the odds of mastitis and udder leakage were lower (p<0.05) with dry-cow therapy (odds ratio 0.12; 0.12), gradual cessation of milking (odds ratio 0.22; 0.29), or stopping concentrate feeding (odds ratio 0.14; 0.26). The study found that gradual reduction in milking (47%) and abrupt cessation of milking (22%) were the most common drying-off practices. These methods are effective for cows producing less than 3 liters/day at the start of drying off and do not result in milk loss during early successive lactation. However, abrupt cessation of milking is more likely to result in poor udder health outcomes. Though teat sealant was rarely used (3.9%), it proved effective for cows producing more than 5 liters/day, maintaining milk production and udder health during early successive lactation. These findings provide crucial insights for farmers on selecting appropriate drying-off practices to optimize milk yield and udder health.

In dairy intensification, mastitis infections become prevalent and induce frequent Antimicrobial Use (AMU), sometimes inappropriately. This poses public health risks because of growing Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), which calls for stewardship programs informed by Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAPs) about AMU and AMR to halt or reverse the worrying trend. Data was obtained in cross sectional survey conducted in four peri-urban wards around Nakuru city in Kenya. Randomly selected sample farmers (n=124) with free-grazing, semi-zero-grazing or zero-grazing dairy management, representing increasing dairy intensification levels provided data on the KAPs. Chi-square test statistics was fitted to establish associations between KAPs and dairy intensification levels. Among the sample farmers, six in ten (58.8 percent) had intensified dairy production, at least six in ten were marketing milk through informal outlets and were using antimicrobial drugs. Compliance with the withdrawal period was high and increased (p0.05), using antimicrobials for mastitis treatment increased while sourcing information on antimicrobial use from extension and veterinary officers decreased, with increasing intensification level. Farmers with some training on prudent antimicrobial use and with positive attitudes that milk from antimicrobial treated cows is unsafe, antimicrobial resistant pathogens and residues can be passed from milk to humans, mastitis can be treated without antimicrobial drugs, and antimicrobial residues can end up accumulating in the soils increased (p>0.05) with increasing dairy intensification levels. These results show that regarding AMU and AMR, farmers become more knowledgeable, with positive attitudes and good practices as they intensify their dairy management. The implication is that intensification of dairy management motivates farmers to gain more knowledge, acquire positive attitudes and apply good practices towards responsible prudent use of antimicrobials in livestock. Therefore, strengthening stewardship with targeted training and sensitization can foster prudent and responsible antimicrobial use.