Alta De Vos

Maintaining biodiversity is central to the sustainable development agenda, However, a lack of context-specific biodiversity information at policy-relevant scales has posed major limitations to decision-makers. To address this challenge, we undertook a comprehensive assessment of the biodiversity intactness of sub-Saharan Africa using place-based knowledge of 200 African biodiversity experts. Our bottom-up approach overcomes critical data gaps and limitations of top-down biodiversity models by quantifying biodiversity intactness using the Biodiversity Intactness Index for Africa (bii4africa), a dataset that we previously co-produced and published with 200 experts in African fauna and flora. These experts embody place-based African biodiversity knowledge, which holds credibility, legitimacy and saliency for mainstreaming into national decision-making and contributes to inclusivity and decoloniality in science. The bii4africa dataset contains standardized estimates by experts of the impact of the predominant land uses in sub-Saharan Africa on diverse functional groupings of species that represent around 50,000 terrestrial vertebrates and vascular plants. Here we integrate ten spatial datasets to map these land uses, which we combine with bioregional lists of indigenous taxa and the associated bii4africa data to map the BII across sub-Saharan Africa. We estimate that the region has on average lost 24% of its pre-colonial and pre-industrial faunal and floral population abundances, ranging from losses of

Conservation science sits between rich but often abstract grand theory and a vast body of practice-based case studies, yet it lacks the mid-range theory needed to link the two. This deficit limits our ability to advance knowledge, generalise across cases, and anticipate when and why particular interventions will work, fail, or backfire.We propose a workflow for building mid-range theory for conservation science using simple quantitative models grounded in a shared ontology of social–ecological systems, and illustrate it based on case studies. Using the Coupled Infrastructure Systems (CIS) Framework, we first delimit the focal conservation system and identify key feedbacks between ecological, social, institutional, and built infrastructures. We then: (1) derive causal loop diagrams focused on specific management-relevant feedbacks; (2) translate these into clearly defined variables and mathematical relationships; (3) connect them into simple simulation models; and (4) use experiments to refine hypotheses, clarify domains of applicability, and identify critical variables and indicators.We illustrate this process with two conservation problems: human–wildlife conflict around protected areas, and the provision of biodiversity as a public good on privately owned forests under European Union policy. In both cases, the workflow sharpened definitions (e.g. of system boundaries and actors), revealed under-recognised social variables (such as tolerance for wildlife and social license), and clarified where existing grand theories are either too abstract or too narrow to guide decisions. Focusing on feedbacks rather than whole systems reduced complexity while preserving core dynamics, and the shared CIS-based ontology facilitated comparison across cases and the construction of archetypes.We argue that such mid-range models can improve the parsimony, empirical tractability, and predictive potential of conservation theory, support comparative and archetype-based research, and provide a basis for testing conservation measures before costly implementation. Developing mid-range theory in this way is essential if conservation science is to move beyond repeated trial-and-error learning toward more cumulative, theory-informed action.

The long‐term success of protected and conserved areas depends on their capacity to remain relevant to human society while maintaining diverse, functional ecosystems. However, despite long‐standing interest in applying complex systems approaches to foster protected area (PA) social–ecological resilience and adaptive capacity, a gap between theory and practice remains. We reviewed the evolution of overarching principles for resilience management to provide a cohesive synthesis and identify priorities for conservation governance and management. A systematic literature search identified 15 individual articles that together proposed 20 interrelated thematic clusters (themes) of principles. Analysis of connections between themes and publications identified 2 main schools, one with a more institutional focus (the Ostrom school) and the other with a more ecological focus (the Holling school). We assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the combined set of resilience principles with a focus on identifying gaps in current knowledge. Strengths included principles supported by extensive research on ecological diversity, heterogeneity, and collaborative governance. Key gaps relating to PA resilience included 3 interrelated needs for future research and action: developing governance solutions that extend beyond traditional PA boundaries, clarification of the dynamics of the relationship between resilience and transformation agendas, and deeper and more formal inclusion of justice and equity in resilience management. The rigorous establishment, application, and testing of science‐based principles for building and supporting resilience and adaptive capacity, and their translation into conservation actions, remain a critically important goal for conservation science.

There is a growing recognition within national policy that South Africa's wildlife economy holds the potential to contribute to both socio-economic development and biodiversity conservation. Recent policy initiatives outline a broad strategy aimed at guiding the country's biodiversity economy, emphasizing the importance of enhancing the sustainable use of wildlife to promote socio-economic growth and transformation. However, the efficacy of these proposed strategies and policies in achieving the dual goals of biodiversity conservation and economic development largely hinges on the behaviour of markets. Game price data present a unique opportunity to investigate the dynamics of one crucial market within this economy: the trade of game animals. Here we use game auction and international trophy hunting data to assess variations in market price trends of game animals between 1991 and 2022. Additionally, we analyse the number of game animals sold and hunted, as well as the frequency of exports, to understand the potential drivers of these trends. Our findings reveal that auction prices for plains and high-value game animals exhibited a gradual increase from 1991 until 2012. However, between 2015 and 2017, these prices experienced a sharp rise, followed by a considerable decline from 2018 onwards. The number of international trophy hunts showed a gradual upward trend with notable declines in 2020. Variations in market price trends highlight the necessity to investigate potential drivers of such fluctuations. Our work carries significant implications for policy development and decision-making processes, and for the effective management of wildlife to achieve conservation objectives.

The expansion of wildlife ranching has been broadly linked to conservation benefits, job creation, and economic contributions. However, a more nuanced understanding of the socioeconomic contributions of wildlife ranching accounting for the enterprise diversity in the sector remains a major limitation to assessing its potential to contribute to sustainable development. We assessed several important socioeconomic contributions of diverse wildlife‐based business models, defined by their main revenue‐generating activities, within the South African wildlife ranching industry, and the financial viability of these models. Owners and managers of privately‐owned wildlife ranches and conventional agricultural farms (for comparative purposes) were interviewed in the Eastern Cape (112 ranches; 24 farms) and Limpopo provinces (152 ranches; 4 farms). We used a hierarchical clustering analysis to delineate six wildlife ranching business models. These included three more specialized models: ecotourism, trophy hunting, and wildlife breeding, and three more mixed models: mixed hunting (i.e., both meat and trophy hunting), mixed wildlife‐agriculture, and trophy hunting‐game meat. In general, ecotourism‐focused ranches employed more people in total and per hectare (median = 23 jobs; 0.008/ha), and a higher proportion of women and skilled employees (41% and 45% of employees, respectively) than the other ranching models (median = 7–21 jobs; 0.002–0.005/ha) and conventional agriculture (median = 12 jobs; 0.004/ha). Trophy hunting‐focused ranches employed the second highest number of people per hectare (0.006) although on average, a third of these jobs were seasonal. Trophy hunting ranches tended to be more profitable (median profit margin = 33%) than ecotourism (−10%), wildlife breeding (0%) and mixed‐hunting (12%) ranches, though ecotourism ranches showed very high variability (interquartile range = −32% to 14%). These findings advance our understanding of the distinct socioeconomic contributions of diverse wildlife ranches, which benefits policy discourse and implementation surrounding the industry, promoting improved industry sustainability and inclusive growth.

Climate change, population growth, and land degradation are causing various socio‐economic consequences in low‐ to medium‐income countries. To address this, it is essential to prioritize restoration interventions at specific locations to maximize their effectiveness and the supply of valuable ecosystem services, such as water regulation. A stakeholder‐driven spatial multi‐criteria analysis was applied in two degraded and rural catchments in the Eastern Cape (the Cacadu and Tsitsa River Catchments), South Africa. The process combined metrics for ecosystem health, hydrological functionality, and socio‐economic benefit to visualize areas that can be targeted to maintain or enhance flow regulation. These criteria were identified based on the guidance of local stakeholders concerning their valuable ecological infrastructure (EI). The EI types investigated were wetlands, riverbanks, rangelands, and old croplands. Human and climate change impacts threaten these EIs but are the most relevant for communal needs and sustainability. According to the analysis, more places require better management to maintain the existing flow regulation service of focal catchments than areas that require a high level of human intervention (implying areas that can enhance flow regulation). This work highlights the importance of including and contextualizing the socio‐economic benefits expected from Nature‐based Solutions or EI investment initiatives.

Sustainability-focused research networks and communities of practice have emerged as a key response and strategy to build capacity and knowledge to support transformation towards more sustainable, just and equitable futures. This paper synthesises insights from the development of a community of practice on social-ecological systems (SES) research in southern Africa over the past decade, linked to the international Programme on Ecosystem Change and Society (PECS). This community consists of a network of researchers who carry out place-based SES research in the southern African region. They interact through various cross-cutting working groups and also host a variety of public colloquia and student and practitioner training events. Known as the Southern African Program on Ecosystem Change and Society (SAPECS), its core objectives are to: (1) derive new approaches and empirical insights on SES dynamics in the southern African context; (2) have a tangible impact by mainstreaming knowledge into policy and practice; and (3) grow the community of practice engaged in SES research and governance, including researchers, students and practitioners. This paper reflects on experiences in building the SAPECS community, with the aim of supporting the development of similar networks elsewhere in the world, particularly in the Global South.

Social-ecological systems (SES) research has emerged as an important area of sustainability science, informing and supporting pressing issues of transformation towards more sustainable, just and equitable futures. To date, much SES research has been done in or from the Global North, where the challenges and contexts for supporting sustainability transformations are substantially different from the Global South. This paper synthesises emerging insights on SES dynamics that can inform actions and advance research to support sustainability transformations specifically in the southern African context. The paper draws on work linked to members of the Southern African Program on Ecosystem Change and Society (SAPECS), a leading SES research network in the region, synthesizing key insights with respect to the five core themes of SAPECS: (i) transdisciplinary and engaged research, (ii) ecosystem services and human well-being, (iii) governance institutions and management practices, (iv) spatial relationships and cross-scale connections, and (v) regime shifts, traps and transformations. For each theme, we focus on insights that are particularly novel, interesting or important in the southern African context, and reflect on key research gaps and emerging frontiers for SES research in the region going forward. Such place-based insights are important for understanding the variation in SES dynamics around the world, and are crucial for informing a context-sensitive global agenda to foster sustainability transformations at local to global scales.

Chapter 3 aims to guide the reflexive social-ecological systems (SES) researcher through different components of an SES research project. The chapter focuses on the identification of research problems, the purpose of the research and the SES research areas within which a researcher may be embedded. It also elaborates on more general issues relating to data generation, participatory research along a gradient of collaboration, as well as computational and mathematical modelling approaches, as these are common to a number of specific methods discussed in Part 2 of the book. Finally, practical ethical considerations associated with SES research are considered.