Juan Manuel García-Manso

Sport in Spain during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975) underwent significant evolution across three distinct political phases: autarky, the technocratic stage, and late Francoism. Each of these periods was characterized by different approaches and uses of sport within the regime’s political structure. In the early years, sport was primarily employed as a tool for propaganda and social control, aligning with the authoritarian values of the state. Subsequently, with the rise of technocrats in the 1960s, reforms were implemented to promote the structural development of the sports system, fostering its modernization and the creation of specialized institutions. Finally, in the late Francoist period, sport became an instrument for international projection, as Spain increased its participation in international competitions and hosted sporting events. This entry analyzes the primary governmental initiatives for the organization and promotion of sport during the Franco regime, with particular attention to the administrative roles played by figures such as José Antonio Elola-Olaso and Juan Antonio Samaranch in the evolving structure of the Spanish sports system. Through an analysis based on documentary sources, it provides a comprehensive overview of Francoist sports policies, their objectives, and their impact on Spanish society. In this regard, sport under Franco’s rule was not only a means of political control but also laid the foundation for the later professionalization and globalization of Spanish sport.

Este texto ofrece un relato cronológico del surgimiento, en el marco de la antigua Unión Soviética, de la cibernética en el entrenamiento y la periodización deportiva, y analiza los acontecimientos y aportes que condujeron a la incorporación de esta ciencia al deporte. Dicho proceso resultó apasionante y brillante para muchos, pero también incómodo para otros, e incluso hizo tambalear algunos de los fundamentos científicos de la entonces Unión Soviética. Sin embargo, parece claro que el proceso terminó convirtiéndose en la base de algunas de las ciencias más importantes del entorno deportivo, un apoyo fundamental a las teorías del aprendizaje deportivo, un elemento fundamental de la biomecánica y, en general, de todas las ciencias que pretenden entender y fundamentar la preparación de atletas de rendimiento. Además, el texto permite entender algunos de los principios y leyes en los que se sustenta el entrenamiento deportivo, muy especialmente, el de alto rendimiento. El documento abre una línea de análisis e investigación que podría explicar, en buena parte, los actuales procesos de programación y periodización del entrenamiento deportivo.

Empirically, it is widely discussed in “Cross” modalities that the pacing strategy developed by an athlete or trainee has a significant impact on the endurance performance in a WOD in the AMRAP, EMOM, or FOR TIME model. We can observe at least six pacing strategies adopted during the cyclical modalities in the endurance performance in the scientific literature. However, besides these modalities, exercises of acyclical modalities of weightlifting and gymnastics are performed in the “Cross” modalities. These exercises may not allow the same pacing strategies adopted during cyclic modalities’ movements due to their motor characteristics and different intensity and level of effort imposed to perform the motor gesture. In addition to the intensity and level of effort that are generally unknown to the coach and athlete of the “Cross” modalities, another factor that can influence the adoption of a pacing strategy during a WOD in the AMRAP, EMOM, or FOR TIME model is the task endpoint knowledge, which varies according to the training model used. Thus, our objective was to evaluate situations in which these factors can influence the pacing strategies adopted in a self-regulated task with cyclic and acyclic modalities movements during an endurance workout in the AMRAP, EMOM, and FOR TIME model. Given the scarcity of studies in the scientific literature and the increasing discussion of this topic within the “Cross” modalities, this manuscript can help scientists and coaches better orient their research problems or training programs and analyze and interpret new findings more accurately.

Endurance exercise induces notable acute hormonal responses on the gonadal and adrenal hormones. The purpose of this study was to assess the changes in salivary testosterone (Ts), salivary cortisol (Cs) and T/C ratio during long‐distance triathlon. Ten well‐trained male triathletes participated in the study and were assessed for hormonal changes at four time‐points (pre‐competition, post‐swimming, post‐cycling, and post‐running phases). Ts decreased from pre‐competition to post‐swimming (from 93.37 pg/mL to 57.63 pg/mL; p < .01) and increased during two other parts of the competition to almost pre‐competition values (cycling: 79.20 pg/mL, p = .02; running: 89,66 pg/mL, p = .04, respectively). Cs showed a similar behaviour; decreasing in the post‐swimming phase (1.74 pg/mL) and increasing in the other transitions (post‐cycling: 7.30 pg/mL; post‐running: 13.31 pg/mL), with significant differences between pre‐competition and post‐ competition values (p = .01). Conversely, T/C increased significantly from pre‐competition to post‐swimming phase (p = .04) to later decrease until the end of the competition. Overall, T/C significantly decreased (p < .05). In conclusion, during an Ironman triathlon, hormone values fluctuate in response to the demands of the competition. Ts and Cs decrease after‐swimming, increase after‐cycling and reach the maximum values after‐running. T/C reflects overall catabolic status.

In high jumping, the horizontal velocity which jumpers aim to reach by the end of the run-up must be the maximum that they can control, enabling them to clear the greatest height possible. Furthermore, jumpers should reach the point of take-off with the lowest possible centre of mass (CM) to increase the thrust during take-off and thus produce a greater vertical velocity of the CM at the end of this phase. The aim of this study was to identify gender-related differences in the kinematic parameters of the sprint. The sample comprised 14 high jumpers (n = 8 males and n = 6 females) who were analysed during an official competition and recorded with four high speed panning cameras (sampling frequency: 50 fps). The results showed gender-related differences in the maximum height attained by the centre of mass during the flight phase (p = 0.004; Effect Size = 0.93) and in flight effectiveness (p ≤ 0.001; ES = 5.53), but not in jump effectiveness. Gender-related differences were not detected between the trajectory followed by the CM in the final supports of the run-up and the curve radius or in the direction of the final supports either. In conclusion, there are no significant gender differences in the run-up.

The aim was to determine the pacing strategies used to achieve male 1500 m running world record performances. Lap times (three first laps and the last 300 m) for the last 37 male 1500 m world record performances achieved since 1917 until 1998 were collected. An analysis of variance with repeated measures and a Bonferroni post hoc test were conducted to determine differences between the percentages of race average speed at each lap. Lap 1 and last 300 m differed from lap 2 and 3, being the latter slower (P < 0.001, 1.44 ≤ ES ≤ 1.95), and displaying a U-shaped pacing profile. Whereas the pacing strategies observed differed from those previously determined for major championship races, a fast endspurt was always present and therefore athletes aiming for a world standard performance should train for developing their anaerobic capacity in addition to a high aerobic power.

Background: We studied the effects of a supervised, structured exercise program in a severe sarcoidosis patient. Methods: After being clinically stable for two years, a 52-year-old woman (stage IV, American Thoracic Society) who originally had irreversible lung fibrosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), mild mitral insufficiency, and atrial dilatation, and was candidate for lung transplant, performed a combined high-intensity interval, high load resistance, and inspiratory muscle training for 4.5 years, and was tested (cardiopulmonary exercise testing and dual X-ray absorptiometry) every six months. Results: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and maximal pulmonary ventilation increased by 44% and 60%, respectively. Ventilatory efficiency also improved (decrease in the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen by 32% and 14% at the ventilatory threshold and respiratory compensation point, respectively). She improved New York Heart Association (NYHA) class (from III to II), and cardiac alterations as well as PAH reversed so that she was not in need of lung transplantation anymore. Likewise, she suffered no more episodes of hemoptysis. Bone health was overall maintained despite the post-menopausal status and the corticoid treatment. Conclusions: A long-term combined exercise intervention safely contributed—at least partly—to improve CRF and NYHA class in a patient with severe sarcoidosis, suggesting a potential coadjuvant effect to attenuate clinical manifestations.

This study analyzes the strategy used by the best male runners who participated in one of the major city marathons (Frankfurt Marathon, 2008‐2018), the all‐time performances P ≤ .001), starting from halfway through the race and getting sharper from the 30th kilometer (30‐35 km = 1.6%, P ≤ .001 – 35‐40 km = 4.3%, P ≤ .001 – 40‐42.195 km: 3.9%, P ≤ .001, total = ≈10%). In the races in which the world record is achieved, the running speed tends to be steady and relatively conservative during the first stretch of the race, increasing smoothly in the second half and achieving a significant increase in the last 2195 m of the race (P = .016, ES = 1.14). Among all the possible strategies, running at a steady pace throughout the race seems the most effective option, especially when priority is given to time rather than position (ie, world records and best all‐time races).