Daniel J. Skylas

Faba bean protein concentrate (FPC) offers promising applications in the food industry, particularly in the formulation of plant‐based meat and dairy alternatives, because of its versatile functional characteristics. This study examined the impact of thermal treatment on functional properties of FPC and the textural properties of its gels when using CaSO₄ as a coagulant. The thermal treatment involved a 30‐min saturated steam treatment at 100°C in a commercial combination oven, followed by 10 min of fluidised‐bed drying at 140°C, applied to dehulled faba bean seed material prior to dry fractionation. The functional properties of untreated and thermally treated FPCs, including protein solubility and water‐holding capacity, were assessed. Subsequently, heat‐induced gels were prepared with the faba bean protein material concentrations ranging from 12% to 16% w/w and CaSO₄ concentrations from 0.0% to 0.5% w/w and analysed for water‐holding capacity, pH, textural and rheological properties. Thermal treatment resulted in a 32% reduction in protein solubility of the FPCs, while enhancing water‐holding capacity by 2.2‐fold. Gels formed with thermally treated FPC exhibited significantly higher stiffness and hardness, as well as altered rheological properties, including higher storage, loss modulus, yield stress and flow stress. The combination of thermal treatment and CaSO₄ significantly improved the textural and rheological properties of the gels, suggesting a synergistic effect. These findings demonstrate the potential of thermal treatment and salt coagulants to modulate the gelation properties of pulse protein concentrates, offering sustainable strategies for developing plant‐based edible gels with enhanced functionality.

Pulses are grown worldwide and provide agronomic benefits that contribute to the sustainability of cropping systems. Pulses are high in protein and provide a good source of carbohydrates, dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive constituents. Crops such as lupins, chickpeas, faba beans, field peas, lentils, and mung beans, and the diversity of varieties among them, provide enormous opportunities for processing protein ingredients for use in new and existing food formulations. This review highlights the nutritional properties of pulses, protein quality, functionality, and applications for pulse protein ingredients. Understanding the functionality of pulse proteins, and the unique properties between different pulses in terms of solubility, water- and oil-holding capacity, emulsification, gelation, and foaming properties, will help maximise their use in plant-based meat and dairy alternatives, beverages, bakery products, noodles, pasta, and nutritional supplements. In this review, researchers, food technologists, and food manufacturers are provided with a comprehensive resource on pulses, and the diverse applications for pulse protein ingredients within the context of food manufacturing and the constantly evolving food technology landscape.

Background and Objectives: The nutritional quality of instant noodles can be improved using dry and wet fractionated mungbean protein ingredients. Wheat flour was blended with mungbean protein concentrate and protein isolate to produce high‐protein instant noodles of around 15%, 20%, and 25% protein. The effects on nutritional composition, protein quality, texture, cooking, and color properties of instant noodles were investigated.Findings: Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in the nutritional, physico‐chemical, and functional properties of wheat flour and mungbean protein ingredients. Water and oil holding capacities were higher for mungbean protein isolate and protein concentrate compared to mungbean and wheat flour ingredients. Blends of wheat flour with mungbean protein concentrate and protein isolate produced instant noodles with significantly higher (p < 0.05) protein and mineral content, and lower fat content, compared to the wheat flour control. The protein content of instant noodles ranged from 9.1 to 23.6 g/100 g (db.). Linear regression analysis showed a strong relationship between protein content and noodle firmness (R = 0.965). There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in lysine content (1.7–11.5 mg/g flour) with the addition of protein concentrate and isolate, improving the amino acid score of lysine from 0.34 to 0.91. The color properties of fried instant noodles showed increased redness (a*) and yellowness (b*), and lightness (L*) decreased with increasing protein content. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in cooking losses but there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in water uptake, being lower for instant noodles blended with protein isolate.Conclusions: Instant noodles blended with wheat flour and mungbean protein concentrate and isolate had higher protein content, with improved nutritional composition and protein quality. Instant noodles blended with protein concentrate had significantly lower (p < 0.05) levels of fat and sodium content, and higher levels of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc, compared to those blended with protein isolate. Instant noodles with improved nutritional composition have the potential to deliver increased health benefits to consumers.Significance and Novelty: The key findings from this study will inform food manufacturers of the health benefits of mungbean and encourage the use of dry fractionated mungbean protein concentrate ingredients in popular and widely consumed food products.

Dry fractionation (DF) of pulses is proposed as a more sustainable process than wet fractionation (WF) to create protein ingredients for food applications. To facilitate the use of these ingredients by food manufacturers, it is important to understand the connection between their functional properties and processing methods. This study investigated protein ingredients from faba bean, mung bean, yellow pea and chickpea obtained via milling and air‐classification and commercial WF, comparing them with commercial soy protein concentrate. Functional properties of these ingredients were investigated, including overall solubility, protein solubility, water‐holding, oil‐holding, emulsifying, foaming and rheological properties. DF proteins exhibited higher protein solubility, higher emulsification and lighter colour, while WF proteins demonstrated higher water‐holding capacity. The pasting profiles varied significantly between the two processing methods, with DF proteins exhibiting lower pasting temperatures. However, the gels formed from DF and WF proteins exhibited similar abilities to withstand deformation and retain their structure. The findings highlight that the fractionation method significantly influences the functional properties of protein materials. Dry fractionation may produce materials with high solubility, offering significant potential in food applications.

Plant‐based proteins continue to gain popularity as a sustainable alternative to animal proteins due to their nutritional, functional and health benefits. Dry and wet fractionation methods are increasingly being used for the production of value‐added pulse protein ingredients. The objective of this study was to compare the nutritional properties, protein quality, physicochemical properties and secondary structure of Australian faba bean and yellow pea protein concentrates and protein isolates obtained by dry and wet fractionation. Amino acid scores highlighted that faba bean and yellow pea protein isolates and concentrates were deficient in the sulphur‐containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine and tryptophan. Faba bean (63.7%) and yellow pea protein (63.0%) isolates had higher in vitro protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid scores compared to the protein concentrates, being 50.7% and 54.4%, respectively. Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy revealed different secondary structures between protein concentrates and isolates, especially for the amide I region. Faba bean and yellow pea protein concentrates had higher protein solubility (46.2% and 50.1%, respectively) and higher foaming capacity (65% and 59%, respectively) compared to the protein isolates. Water‐holding capacity was higher for faba bean and yellow pea protein isolates, being 4.3% and 4.0 g/g, respectively. These findings demonstrate that faba bean and yellow pea protein concentrates and isolates have unique functional properties that can be exploited for use in a diverse range of new and existing food applications.

Background and Objectives: Dry fractionation, combining milling and air classification technology, offers an economical and sustainable pathway for the processing of value‐added protein ingredients from Australia's major pulse crops. Leveraging a wider range of pulses will help meet the growing demand for plant‐based protein ingredients. This study demonstrates the efficient processing of protein concentrates from Australian mungbean, which were characterized for key nutritional properties, phytochemical constituents, protein quality, and protein secondary structure.Findings: Milling and air classification of mungbean flour resulted in protein concentrates (fine fraction) with a protein content of 62.2 g/100 g (db), reflecting a two‐fold increase in protein content compared to the original flour (p < .05). Ash, fat, dietary fiber, and free phenolic and antioxidant compounds, also co‐concentrated with protein in the fine fraction (p < .05), imparting enhanced nutritional properties with the potential to deliver health benefits. The protein quality of dry fractionated mungbean protein concentrate was compared to a commercial source of mungbean protein isolate (88 g/100 g, [db]). Amino acid scores highlighted deficiencies in sulfur‐containing amino acids, methionine, and cysteine, as well as tryptophan and threonine. In vitro protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid scores for the mungbean protein concentrate and protein isolate were 63.7% and 59.5%, respectively. SDS‐PAGE protein profiles showed no major differences in protein composition, indicating that no specific types of proteins are lost during the dry fractionation process. Fourier transform infrared analysis of protein secondary structure showed that β‐sheets were the dominant structural component, with relative percentages of 36% and 49%, for the mungbean protein concentrate and isolate, respectively.Conclusions: There is significant potential for dry fractionation to deliver value‐added opportunities for Australian mungbean, through the production of protein concentrate ingredients with enhanced nutritional properties for use in new and existing foods.Significance and Novelty: Nutritional properties, protein quality, and protein secondary structure were compared for protein concentrates and protein isolates processed from Australian‐grown mungbean. Key findings from this study will inform pulse protein processors and pulse‐based food manufacturers.

Different pre-treatments of pulses affect the content of antinutritional factors and protein digestibility. This study addresses the challenge of removing phytic acid, which is one of the major anti-nutritional factors present in faba beans. From this study, fluidized bed drying at 120 °C and 140 °C removed 8–22% of the phytic acid present. Phytic acid is thermally stable, and drying did not lead to a large reduction in concentration. Greater drying temperatures and drying times had little effect on the removal of phytic acid. Soaking the dehulled faba beans in 0.1% citric acid for 12 h at 37 °C removed 51 ± 11% of the phytic acid. After soaking for 12 h, microwaving the faba beans for two minutes removed over 70% of the phytic acid, including soaking in water or soaking in 0.1% citric acid solution. The mechanism for phytic acid reduction after microwaving appears to be linked with changes in the cotyledon cellular structure of the faba bean, as demonstrated using scanning electron microscopy. The protein secondary structure in the faba bean was modified after microwaving. The in vitro protein digestibility of dehulled faba beans used in this study increased by 15.7% compared with the fresh faba beans of 75.5 ± 0.5%. The in vitro digestibility of dehulled faba beans increased to 88.3 ± 0.6% after two minutes of microwaving, so both dehulling and microwaving improved the digestibility of the faba bean proteins.

Milling and air classification settings were optimised for production of protein concentrates from Australian faba bean, yellow pea and red lentil seed material. Pulses were milled to flour of three progressively finer particle size distributions (D₅₀ of 23–25, 16–18 and 13–14 μm) and air classified at classifier wheel speeds of 7080, 9600 and 10,200 rpm. Maximum protein concentration was reported for pulse flours (D₅₀ of 13–14 μm) at 9600 rpm. Protein concentrations of 61.4, 58.1 and 61.0 g/100 g (db.), reflecting a fold increase in protein content of 1.9, 2.3 and 2.1, were reported for faba bean, yellow pea and red lentil, respectively. Protein, ash, fat and total dietary fibre contents were significantly higher in fine fractions (p < 0.05), compared with coarse fractions, resulting in protein concentrates with enhanced nutritional properties. Amino acid score (AAS) of protein concentrates highlighted deficiencies in sulphur‐containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine (MET + CYS), and tryptophan. Based on the lowest AAS (MET + CYS), protein concentrates were ranked highest for yellow pea (0.75), followed by faba bean (0.58) and red lentil (0.51). Phytochemical analysis demonstrated that bioactive constituents also co‐concentrated with protein (fine fraction), potentially leading to protein concentrates with enhanced health benefits. Shelf‐life assessment for the original flours and protein concentrates indicated the onset of rancidity after 3 months of storage. As fat content co‐concentrated with protein, the rancidity (%) scores were higher for protein concentrates compared with the original flours. This demonstrates the importance of developing effective treatments, suitable for dry processing, which can extend shelf‐life and stability of protein concentrate ingredients for domestic and export markets. The objective of this study was to increase the knowledge available on dry processing of protein concentrates from Australian pulses. The information generated from this study will look to inform future commercial scale processing operations.

Although Australia is the largest exporter of faba bean globally, there is limited information available on the levels of bioactive compounds found in current commercial faba bean varieties grown in this country. This study profiled the phenolic acid and flavonoid composition of 10 Australian faba bean varieties, grown at two different locations. Phenolic profiling by HPLC-DAD revealed the most abundant flavonoid to be catechin, followed by rutin. For the phenolic acids, syringic acid was found in high concentrations (72.4–122.5 mg/kg), while protocatechuic, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, and trans-ferulic acid were all found in low concentrations. The content of most individual phenolics varied significantly with the variety, while some effect of the growing location was also observed. This information could be used by food processors and plant breeders to maximise the potential health benefits of Australian-grown faba bean.