Jiayan Zhao

Introduction: The proliferation of autonomous driving raises concerns about the psychological and behavioral adaptations of future drivers. One emerging challenge is the potential degradation of spatial knowledge due to reduced navigation and control over autonomous vehicles; however, limited research has examined this issue or potential solutions. The present study investigates how visualizing landmarks on an augmented reality head-up display (AR-HUD) influences incidental spatial knowledge acquisition during autonomous driving. Methods: We developed an AR-HUD that visualizes both local (on-route) and distant (off-route) landmarks on the windshield and evaluated it using an immersive virtual reality (VR) simulation. Sixty-eight participants experienced one of four conditions in a 2 × 2 factorial design with windshield display (AR-HUD versus normal windshield) and road type (local road versus highway), while their eye movements were recorded. After the autonomous driving experience, participants completed multiple-choice questions assessing route, directional, and configurational spatial knowledge. Results: Compared to a normal windshield, participants using the AR-HUD exhibited better route- and direction-related knowledge, while its benefit for configurational knowledge depended on road type. Eye-tracking data further indicated that the highway environment, characterized by fewer local and more distant landmarks, imposed greater difficulty for spatial information processing than local roads, and that the AR-HUD promoted more effective visual and cognitive engagement with task-relevant environmental features. Discussion: These findings suggest that AR landmark visualization can support multiple levels of incidental spatial learning during autonomous driving and highlight the value of VR and eye tracking for evaluating future in-vehicle spatial interfaces.

Classroom-based language learning has typically taken place in relatively static body positions, but research suggests that embodied learning through sensorimotor engagement and technical immersion, using virtual realities, can significantly enhance learning outcomes. Recent research has linked differences in the learning context to different cortical structures within the language learning network. In this study, we investigated the effect of technical immersion and sensorimotor engagement on performance in behavior and gray matter volume in the brain after a single 20-min language learning task. We tested two learning environments: a low-embodied desktop-based virtual environment (dVE) using a computer screen and a high-embodied immersive virtual reality (iVR) environment using a head-mounted display, as well as a no training group. We assessed morphological brain changes using magnetic resonance imaging at 7 Tesla before and after training. Participants with less sensorimotor engagement, compared to those with high, performed significantly better and showed higher gray matter volume in the left angular gyrus, a key hub region for vocabulary training within the language network, as well as in the left middle temporal gyrus, a region associated with lexical semantic processing. However, we could not identify a difference between the dVE and iVR groups. Our results suggest that both virtual platforms, although different in the level of immersion and whole-body involvement, rely on similar cortical structures within the language learning network. Furthermore, sensorimotor engagement might have a stronger influence on performance and related brain changes than the learning context itself.

Editorial: Human spatial perception, cognition, and behaviour in extended reality

With the development of 5G communication technology and the rise of power semiconductors, the switching frequency of the circuit keeps increasing, which pushes for miniaturization of power modules and related components. Therefore, in this paper, a one-step molding technology was proposed for a DC/DC buck converter power module. We proposed a method of using Soft Magnetic Powder filled Epoxy (SMPE) adhesive as a molding material to encapsulate a power module, which is a DC/DC buck converter power module contains several passive components, 1 power inductor, and a high-efficiency switching regulator with two integrated N-channel MOSFETs. On the basis of Finite Element Method (FEM), models were firstly established with component level moldings and checked with actual module samples for calibration. Based on the calibrated model, inductors without component level molding were then simulated. SMPE with 4~7μm insulated carbonyl ferrous powder were prepared and measured the magnetic relative permeability. Such material was investigated to pot the whole power module as a one-step molding, instead of separate molding for the power inductor and the power module. After that, thermal analysis and inductance were calculated and compared.

Virtual field trips are transforming education in biology and other place-based disciplines – and not just since Covid-19 has imposed social distancing constraints. Efficient methods for content creation, combined with affordable immersive technology, provide the opportunity to integrate immersive experiences into ever-larger classes. However, many aspects of how immersive experiences can enrich and improve learning in place-based education are still not well understood. We present an empirical study, conducted in a large undergraduate ecology class, comparing students, that experienced an immersive virtual version of a field trip to a biological preserve as preparation for a later actual field trip to the site, with a control group that visited the real site but without having had the virtual experience. Within the virtual experience group, we also varied the quality of the headset. The VR field trip was well received for raising spatial awareness and also motivation and interest. Students ranked it higher than any traditional means with regard to achieving a high level of preparedness for the actual field trip. In contrast, no statistically significant evidence was found for differences in perceived learning outcome and enjoyment of the actual field trip.

Virtual and immersive virtual reality, VR and iVR, provide flexible and engaging learning opportunities, such as virtual field trips (VFTs). Despite its growing popularity for education, understanding how iVR compared to non-immersive media influences learning is still challenged by mixed empirical results and a lack of longitudinal research. This study addresses these issues through an experiment in which undergraduate geoscience students attended two temporally separated VFT sessions through desktop virtual reality (dVR) or iVR, with their learning experience and outcomes measured after each session. Our results show higher levels of enjoyment and satisfaction as well as a stronger sense of spatial presence in iVR students in both VFTs compared to dVR students, but no improvement in learning outcomes in iVR compared to dVR. More importantly, we found that there exists a critical interaction between VR condition and repeated participation in VFTs indicating that longitudinal exposure to VFTs improves knowledge performance more when learning in iVR than through dVR. These results suggest that repeated use of iVR may be beneficial in sustaining students’ emotional engagement and compensating the initial deficiency in their objective learning outcomes compared to other less immersive technologies.