Wan Abdul Wahab Wan Nor Amilah

Background: Due to concerns regarding the quality of municipal water in Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, many residents rely on borehole water, which is often untreated and potentially unsafe. In this study, we assess the microbiological and physicochemical quality of borehole water from household outdoor sources and examine potential risk factors in this regard, including borehole depth and the proximity to sewage systems. Methods: Thirty untreated borehole water samples were collected from residential households and analysed using standard microbiological and physicochemical techniques. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliforms, faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli were determined. Physicochemical parameters included pH, turbidity and free residual chlorine. Associations between microbial quality and borehole characteristics were assessed using Fisher’s exact test. Results: While 70% of samples met the Malaysian Raw Water Quality Criteria (RWQC), 30% showed microbiological contamination, including three with E. coli. All samples had acceptable pH and turbidity levels, though residual chlorine was absent. None of the boreholes complied with the recommended minimum distance from sewage systems, and only four met the minimum depth standard. No significant associations were found between contamination and borehole depth or proximity to sewers (P > 0.05). Conclusion: Despite meeting physicochemical standards, a notable proportion of the borehole samples were microbiologically unsafe. These findings underscore the need for improved borehole construction practices, routine monitoring and public education to reduce waterborne health risks.

Candida albicans is the most common fungal pathogen associated with fungal biofilm, capable of causing superficial mucosal infections and life-threatening systemic infections in humans. This study was conducted to evaluate the in vitro inhibitory activity of Tualang honey on early-phase and mature (established) biofilms of C. albicans. The kinetic profiles of biofilms were assessed using the XTT reduction assay and field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) of Tualang honey were determined through a two-fold serial dilution method, with concentrations ranging from 5% to 80% (w/v). The XTT assay and FESEM were also utilised to evaluate the inhibitory effects of Tualang honey on both early-phase and established biofilms of C. albicans. The early and maturation phases of biofilms were attained after 4 to 12 hours and 48 to 72 hours, respectively. The lowest MIC value of Tualang honey against C. albicans was 80% (w/v). The MFC was undetermined within the tested concentrations. Tualang honey exerted its effect on biofilms by slowing the formation of early-phase biofilms and reducing the size of established biofilms by disintegrating their structures at high concentrations. The FESEM results indicated that this honey caused roughening of the cell surfaces and a decrease in biofilm biomass. The findings from this study suggest that Tualang honey, when applied at a high concentration of 80% (w/v), exhibits a fungistatic-like effect by inhibiting the proliferation of adherent fungal cells and disrupting the structural integrity and stability of biofilms, thereby hindering their further development and maturation.

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance and the prevalence of bacterial infections have prompted the search for novel antimicrobials with diverse therapeutic potential from natural products. Thus, this study investigated the antibacterial efficacy of the leaf extracts of M. cajuputi. Additionally, the chemical composition and the mechanism of action of the most active extract (MAE) were evaluated. The antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of M. cajuputi was assessed using the broth microdilution assay. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the effects of MAE on the morphology of bacterial cells. Meanwhile, the chemical composition of the MAE was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). AutoDock Vina was used for molecular docking analysis to unveil the interactions between the ligands and the active sites of the target bacterial proteins. The crude extracts were obtained through cold maceration. The methanolic extract demonstrated the most significant antibacterial activity, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values spanning 0.25 mg/mL to 2 mg/mL. After 12 h of treatment with 1 × MIC of the methanolic extract, the bacteria showed discernible morphological alterations, including disrupted cell wall and membrane integrity. Thirty compounds were identified in the MAE and subsequently subjected to molecular docking studies against target bacterial proteins. Amongst the compounds, methylanthracene, cycloisolongifolene, diphenyl imidazole, benzil monohydrazone, and trimethoxybenzoic acid showed pronounced binding affinities towards Klebsiella pneumoniae membrane protein (PDB ID: 5O79), peptide binding protein (PDB ID: 7RJJ), Streptococcus agalactiae cell wall surface anchor (PDB ID: 2XTL), pilin (PDB ID: 3PHS), Staphylococcus aureus transglycosylase (PDB ID: 3VMQ), and penicillin-binding proteins (PDB ID: 3VSK). The binding energy scores for these interactions varied between − 6.0 kcal/mol and − 7.5 kcal/mol. Molecular dynamics simulations validated the stability of these interactions, reinforcing the in vitro findings of cell wall and membrane disruption​. The findings of this study indicated that the methanolic extract of M. cajuputi leaves displayed potent antibacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, S. agalactiae, and S. aureus. The molecular docking analysis reveals significant binding interactions between the identified compounds and the target bacterial proteins, highlighting the potential of M. cajuputi as a novel source of anti-infectives targeting bacterial infections.

Fascioliasis is an important zoonotic disease prevalent in domestic animals and it leads to socioeconomic impact in rural farming communities of the developing world. The gold standard diagnosis of ruminant fascioliasis involves coprological detection of Fasciola spp. eggs or recovery of flukes in infected livers. Coprological analysis is unreliable in the patent period of chronic infection, and even then, its sensitivity is relatively low. Robust diagnostic tools that can promptly and accurately detect an active infection are crucial to avoid complications and further losses in ruminant livestock productivity, as well as to preserve the livelihood of communities at risk. Immunodiagnosis determined by antibody and antigen detection in the sera and faeces of infected ruminants provides a valuable alternative to the parasitological diagnostic approach. This review discusses current developments in immunological techniques by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the detection of ruminant fascioliasis and summarises the performance of various ELISAs in studies conducted to date. Indirect ELISAs demonstrated effective immunodiagnostic performance with high sensitivities and specificities. Cathepsin L ELISA is the most favourable antigen in serodiagnosis, among other recombinant and native proteins evaluated. Sandwich ELISA provides excellent sensitivity and specificity, which correlates well with the fluke burden. Utilising monoclonal antibodies in sandwich ELISA reduces the detection time and performance variations that commonly occur in polyclonal antibody ELISA.

A longitudinal study was conducted in five randomly selected farms in Kelantan, Malaysia to determine the seasonal occurrence of cattle fascioliasis and its association with climatic factors. A total of 480 faecal samples were collected by a random purposive sampling method from July 2018 to June 2019. The faecal samples were examined for the presence of Fasciola eggs using a formalin ether sedimentation technique. Meteorological data including temperature, humidity, rainfall, and pan evaporation were obtained from a local meteorological station. The overall prevalence of cattle fascioliasis in Kelantan was 45.8%. The prevalence was observed to be slightly higher during the wet season from August to December (50–58%) than during the dry season from January to June (30–45%). Meanwhile, the mean eggs per gram (EPG) were highest in June (191.1 ± 0.48) and lowest in October (77.62 ± 95.5). However, there were no significant differences in the mean of EPG between the monthly prevalence, tested using one-way ANOVA (p = 0.1828). A statistically significant association (p = 0.014) was observed between the disease and cattle breeds, with Charolais and Brahman showing lower odds of having the disease. There were significant moderate-to-strong positive correlations between cattle fascioliasis and rainfall (r = 0.666; p = 0.018) and humidity (r = 0.808; p = 0.001), as well as strong negative correlations with evaporation (r = −0.829; p = 0.001). The results indicated that the higher prevalence of cattle fascioliasis in Kelantan was correlated with the climatic factors, which include higher rainfall and humidity and lower evaporation.

Medicinal plants are a great source of antibacterial and prebiotic properties that can treat a wide range of human diseases. Senna alata, also known as "candle bush," has many health benefits. It has antimicrobial properties and has been used for centuries to treat skin infections [1] and digestion-related problems such as constipation, stomach discomfort, and liver diseases [2]. This study aimed to screen the phytoconstituents of S. alata leaf extracts, study their antimicrobial activity against several intestinal pathogens, and investigate their potential prebiotic effects against a few probiotic strains. Aqueous and ethanolic S. alata leaf extracts were obtained by the maceration method, then dried and stored until used. A qualitative phytochemical analysis of S. alata leaf extracts was performed to determine the presence of biomolecules such as anthraquinones, carbohydrates, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, tannins, and alkaloids. For the antimicrobial study, serial two-fold dilutions of leaf extracts in concentrations ranging from 10 mg/mL to 0.02 mg/mL were performed in a 96-well microplate to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). For the prebiotic study, serial two-fold dilutions of leaf extracts in concentrations ranging from 10 mg/mL to 1.25 mg/mL were conducted in a 96-well microplate to study the growth rate of probiotics by measuring its optical density (OD) at 0 and 24 hours of incubation at 600 nm. Aqueous and ethanolic leaf extracts showed the presence of tannin, saponins, alkaloids, carbohydrates, and flavonoids. Anthraquinones were not detected in any of the extracts, and phenols could only be detected in the ethanolic leaf extract. At the tested concentrations, both leaf extracts showed antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhi, and Klebsiella pneumoniae based on the MIC values (Table 1). The growth rate of Lactobacillus helveticus and Bifidobacterium longum were significantly increased (p <0.05) after being treated with aqueous leaf extract at 24 hours of incubation (Figure 1). A similar growth pattern was obtained with L. helveticus and B. longum treated with ethanolic leaf extracts (Figure 2). In conclusion, aqueous and ethanolic S. alata leaf extracts displayed antimicrobial activities to certain intestinal pathogenic bacteria at the preliminary extract concentrations employed in the present study. Besides, the extracts have a stimulative effect on the growth of probiotic microorganisms which are typical members of intestinal microbiota. This study provides further evidence that suggests S. alata is one of the prebiotics which could potentially be used to ease the related digestive problems.

The spread of drug-resistant pathogens worldwide has spurred experts' interest in drug discovery. Medicinal plants are an essential source of antimicrobial agents to cure various human ailments. Even though several plants have been examined for antimicrobial compounds, the search for better and safer drugs to combat microbial resistance continues. The leaves and essential oils of Melaleuca cajuputi have been the subject of many investigations on the plant's bioactivity. Even though flowers from various plants are medicinally useful, there have been few studies on the antibacterial properties of M. cajuputi flower extracts. This study aimed to determine the antibacterial activity of M. cajuputi flower extracts against some pathogenic bacteria and phytochemical screening of the most potent extract. cajuputi flower aqueous and ethanolic extracts were obtained by cold maceration, then reconstituted in 10% DMSO. The antibacterial study was carried out using broth microdilution assay to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). Phytochemical screening of the most potent extract was performed using UV-Visible spectrophotometry (UV-VIS) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The percentage yields of the flower extracts in aqueous and ethanol were 11.02% and 8.8%, respectively. Both extracts were found to have bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae (MBC/MIC ratio of less than 4). Ethanol extract demonstrated the lowest MIC and MBC values (Table 1) against all the tested bacterial species except for the E. coli with MIC >4 mg/mL. The UV-Visible spectrum of ethanol extract showed peaks at 368, 412, 535, 606, and 665 nm and respective absorbances of 2.510, 2.902, 0.429, 0.324, and 1.095 Au, which indicated the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds [1]. The FTIR spectra detected the presence of alcohols, hydrocarbons, conjugated aldehyde, phenol, sulfoxide, nitro, and halo compounds in M. cajuputi flower ethanolic extract. In conclusion, the flower extracts of M. cajuputi have antibacterial properties, and their potential biological activities should be further investigated in future studies.