Bassim Mohammed Hashim

Baghdad, Iraq, is among the most polluted cities in the Middle East, yet it lacks a public PM2.5 monitoring network. This study analyzed eight years (2017–2024; n = 416) of gravimetric PM2.5 measurements and their relationship with five meteorological parameters using Pearson, Spearman, and Kendall correlations, a pooled analysis under stable and disturbed conditions, and a comparison with daily U.S. Embassy data. Significant correlations occurred in five of eight years, but only in 2019 (negative with wind speed) and 2022 (positive with temperature and negative with humidity during dust storms) were they consistent across all three methods. In the pooled data, PM2.5 was ~45% higher under stable than disturbed conditions, decreased non-linearly with wind speed, and was higher under northerly winds; the highest episodes were linked to transported dust rather than strong local winds. The monthly series showed no robust trend after correction for autocorrelation (Mann–Kendall p = 0.21), and same-day gravimetric and Embassy concentrations were moderately correlated (r = 0.52). Thus, day-to-day meteorology influences PM2.5 at this site only episodically, unlike the persistent associations reported for humid megacities, whereas the synoptic regime and pollutant transport play a larger role. Sustained emission reduction and continuous monitoring are urgently needed.

This study presents an advanced climate zone classification approach for Borneo using a spatially constrained copula‐based clustering framework. The methodology integrates copula theory for multivariate dependency modelling with fuzzy c‐means (FCM) clustering to capture uncertainty in regional climate classification, while spatial constraints enhance geographic coherence. Historical climate data from the Princeton Global Forcing dataset (1950–2014) were used, encompassing elevation, rainfall, average temperature (Tavg), minimum temperature (Tmin), maximum temperature (Tmax), diurnal temperature range (DTR) and relative humidity (RH). A total of 23 normalisation methods and 11 distance metrics were evaluated to optimize clustering performance. Clustering sensitivity was assessed using internal validation indices: Average Silhouette Width (ASW), Dunn Index (DI) and Calinski‐Harabasz Index (CHI). Results revealed that Yeo‐Johnson normalisation combined with Minkowski distance yielded the most robust performance (ASW = 0.3720, DI = 1.00EE‐04, CHI = 533.25). This configuration successfully delineated five distinct climate zones, Central‐North, East, West, Northeast and South, by achieving a high spatial coherence score (57.08) and establishing contiguous, topo‐climatologically meaningful regions. Central‐North emerged as the coolest and wettest, with the highest elevation, RH and DTR. East and South zones were the warmest, exhibiting the lowest RH and highest variability in DTR and rainfall. The Northeast showed the most pronounced seasonal and spatial temperature variation, while the West was marked by high rainfall and moderate DTR and RH. These zones reflect Borneo's climatic heterogeneity shaped by topographic and thermal‐hygrometric gradients. Spatial autocorrelation analysis using Moran's I confirmed clear spatial structures within clusters, with rainfall and RH showing the strongest spatial dependencies and Tmax the weakest. The West zone emerged as the most spatially homogeneous, while the South exhibited lower spatial dependence. This study advances regional climate classification by integrating statistical rigour, spatial consistency and multivariate climate behaviour, offering valuable insights for climate impact assessment, ecological planning and adaptive environmental management in tropical regions.

Baghdad experienced a severe winter dust storm on December 14, 2024, marking an unusual occurrence in the local weather pattern. The purpose of this analysis is to observe the patterns in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) during this storm by watching indices border stability such as the Richardson number, turbulent energy, vertical shear, buoyancy, layer height of the (ABL) and vertical temperature change, as well as the specific and relative humidity profiles. Data from ERA5 and the Baghdad station’s surface records were analyzed to investigate changes in these variables over the three periods preceding, during, and following the storm. During the storm, thermal-mechanical turbulence occurred, resulting in rapid alterations to the boundary layer structure, a significant drop in stability indices, the formation of distinct thermal profiles, and reversals in the sensible heat flux and atmospheric humidity. The findings contribute to understanding the impact of dust storms on atmospheric stability and encourage further research into how dust affects arid areas.

The concept of temperature change is closely related to climate change. Global warming is one of its most prominent manifestations, and the effects of this will be significant on the climate. It will lead to an increase in the intensity of the air cycle, the encroachment of climatic regions towards the poles, an increase in the frequency of extreme weather phenomena, a change in the distribution of heat and rain in different cities of the world, and a rise in sea levels and the threat of most coastal areas. The research aims to determine the variation in temperature, the amount of rain, and its distribution system in the (Basra, Thi Qar, and Missan) during the period (1998 – 2020), and diagnosis of changes in temperature, rain amount, and their cause, as well as its distribution system by analyzing the trend of change in the annual averages of temperature and annual rainfall amounts for the same study period. The results of spatial analysis using GIS for monthly temperature average data for the same period indicated that the general trend of temperature distribution in all study stations is high, and the peaks during the months (June, July, August, and September), where we notice a large and clear increase, especially in recent years, if compared with rates in previous years. As for the rain data analysis in Iraq, the study found that it was limited to five months (Nov., Dec., Jan., March, April), and October month, which represents the beginning of the rainy season in most monitoring stations, and the month of March, which represents its end, did not record any amount of rain, and this means that the depressions which Iraq exposed to during these two months are unable to produce heavy amounts of the rain because of their shallowness, from the spatial distribution of the amount of rain in the study area that the rainfall rates are reduced to the highest level and its irregular distribution, and therefore reflected in the decrease in water resources in the areas under study. A large amount of daily precipitation in Iraq is due to the recurrence of three atmospheric depressions the (Mediterranean, combined, and Sudanese) depression. These responsible depressions are distinguished by their differences from one region to another, the short duration of their stay and recurrence, the weather conditions that dominate them, and the pressure patterns accompanying them in the upper atmosphere layers. Or some of these depressions reach dryness or are accompanied by non-rainy clouds. This makes Iraq’s rains few, leading to many repercussions on climate, the environment, humans, and various activities.

In the current study, remote sensing techniques and geographic information systems were used to detect changes in land use / land cover (LULC) in the city of Al Hillah, central Iraq for the period from 1990 - 2022. Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI visualizations, correction and georeferencing of satellite visuals were used. And then make the necessary classifications to show the changes in LULC in the city of Al Hillah. Through the study, the results showed that there is a clear expansion in the urban area from 20.5 km2 in 1990 to about 57 km2 in 2022. On the other hand, the results showed that there is a slight increase in agricultural areas and water. While the arid (empty) area decreased from 168.7 km 2 to 122 km 2 in 2022. Long-term urban planning, which is based on LULC analysis, is an effective tool for decision makers to study future patterns in urban expansion in parallel with the expected rise of the population in Iraq in the coming years. . Therefore, it is necessary to use equivalent systematic plans to take into account the theory of urban and population expansion of cities by providing the best places for the population to be concentrated in appropriate ways in the future.

Climate extreme events such as floods and droughts in any area have a significant impact on human life, infrastructure, agriculture, and the economy. In the last two years, flash floods caused by heavy rainstorms have become frequent and destructive in many catchments in Northern Iraq. The present study aims to examine flash floods in the Erbil region, Northern Iraq using Remote sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS), and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for geomorphic data. PCA results revealed that 12 geomorphic parameters exhibited a significant correlation with two different statistical components. To facilitate practical application, ranks are assigned based on the calculated parameters for flood susceptibility mapping. Out of the 24 basins in the current study, three basins (16, 3, and 14) have the highest geomorphometric values (36–39), indicating the zone most susceptible to flash floods and making up a maximum area of 38.58% of the studied region. Six basins (4, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 15), which have geomorphometric values between 30 and 35 and cover a land area of 27.86%, are the most moderately vulnerable to floods. The remaining basins, which make up 33.47% of the research, are occasionally subject to floods and have geomorphometric scores below 30. The precision of the flood susceptibility mapping was validated using the bifurcation ratio and drainage density relationship as well as past flood damages, such as economic losses and human casualties. Most of the recorded injuries and fatalities took place in areas that were particularly prone to severe past flooding. Additionally, the investigation revealed that 44.56% of all populated areas are located in extremely vulnerable basins. The findings demonstrate a notable correlation between the identified flood-susceptible areas and the occurrence of past flood damage.

The study focused on explaining urban expansion and sustainable development of urban land and explaining the role of population expansion in Al Hillah city, Al Hillah city in the center of Babylion Governorate located. The study relied on analyzing the population data of the city of Al Hillah for a period of time (22 years) for the period (2000-2022). This data was analyzed and its role in planning and designing residential areas and neighborhoods in the Al Hillah city was analyzed based on the standards of urban planning and sustainable growth of cities. Landsat 5TM was used in the investigation, Landsat 8OLI satellite data to retrieve the NDVI, NDBI, and NDWI. The findings showed that between 2000 and 2022, urban and population growth increased, and the gradual disappearance of green lands and agricultural during these years as a result of poor planning, and this will lead to the elimination of green and agricultural areas. Urban areas are established quickly, as population pressure leads to the elimination of agricultural lands, In addition to the high temperatures, which led to changing livelihoods, affecting green lands as well, and increasing urban expansion at high rates. The recent results are useful for planning, management and sustainable development of the urban areas. There was a pressing need to make the right choice in this situation, and while it didn’t help to solve the full issue, it did help to address a significant portion of it by rerouting this growth and arranging it away from agricultural regions in order to protect future generations.