Maria Psyridou

Background: Children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk of learning difficulties. This association may reflect shared risk factors, ADHD symptoms hindering learning, or learning difficulties increasing ADHD symptoms. We aimed to map rates of co‐occurrence among ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties and to investigate directional influences between ADHD symptoms and reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension. Methods: Reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension were assessed longitudinally in approximately 2,000 Finnish children across Grades 1–9 (ages 7–16). Attention/hyperactivity symptoms were measured with teacher ratings (Grades 1–4) and self‐reports (Grades 6–9). ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties were based on a 10th percentile cut‐off. Directionality between ADHD symptoms and academic skills was examined using random intercept cross‐lagged panel models (RI‐CLPMs) to separate stable traits from time‐specific states. Results: Children with a learning difficulty were 1.14–1.76 times more likely to have ADHD, whereas children with one learning difficulty were 4.32–4.62 times more likely to have another. The RI‐CLPMs showed consistent autoregressive effects across all domains, indicating stable within‐person variation over time. At the between‐person level (i.e. trait), academic skills were negatively related to ADHD symptoms, especially those reported by teachers. At the within‐person level (i.e. state), ADHD symptoms were unrelated to reading fluency and arithmetic. However, at multiple time points, cross‐lagged effects emerged from ADHD symptoms to subsequent reading comprehension, indicating that elevated ADHD symptoms predicted subsequent declines in reading comprehension. Conclusions: Learning difficulties co‐occurred more frequently with each other (homotypic) than with ADHD (heterotypic co‐occurrence). Both ADHD symptoms and learning difficulties showed trait‐like stability. After accounting for these, ADHD symptoms were no longer linked to reading fluency or arithmetic. However, more ADHD symptoms predicted later declines in reading comprehension, likely because comprehension requires sustained attention – often impaired in children with hyperactivity and inattention.

Background: Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk of learning difficulties. This association may reflect shared risk factors, ADHD symptoms hindering learning, or learning difficulties increasing ADHD symptoms. We aimed to map rates of co-occurrence among ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties and to investigate directional influences between ADHD symptoms and reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension.Methods: Reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension were assessed longitudinally in approximately 2,000 Finnish children across Grades 1 to 9 (ages 7–16). Attention/hyperactivity symptoms were measured with teacher ratings (Grades 1–4) and self-reports (Grades 6–9). ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties were based on a 10th percentile cut-off. Directionality between ADHD symptoms and academic skills was examined using random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) to separate stable traits from time-specific states.Results: Children with a learning difficulty were 1.14 to 1.76 times more likely to have ADHD, whereas children with one learning difficulty were 4.32 to 4.62 times more likely to have another. The RI-CLPMs showed consistent autoregressive effects across all domains, indicating stable within-person variation over time. At the between-person level (i.e., trait), academic skills were negatively related to ADHD symptoms, especially those reported by teachers. At the within-person level (i.e., state), ADHD symptoms were unrelated to reading fluency and arithmetic. However, at multiple time points, cross-lagged effects emerged from ADHD symptoms to subsequent reading comprehension, indicating that elevated ADHD symptoms predicted subsequent declines in reading comprehension. Conclusions: Learning difficulties co-occurred more frequently with each other (homotypic) than with ADHD (heterotypic co-occurrence). Both ADHD symptoms and learning difficulties showed trait-like stability. After accounting for these, ADHD symptoms were no longer linked to reading fluency or arithmetic. However, more ADHD symptoms predicted later declines in reading comprehension, likely because comprehension requires sustained attention—often impaired in children with hyperactivity and inattention.

Reading achievement is positively associated with reading engagement; however, reading anxiety may undermine this relationship by reinforcing avoidance behaviors and reducing engagement. This study investigated whether reading anxiety mediates the association between early reading fluency and later reading engagement, and whether child interest or parent importance value for reading moderate this relationship. The reading skills of approximately 660 children were assessed in Grades 1 and 2. Reading engagement (i.e., reading frequency and avoidance) was measured in both grades, while reading anxiety, children's interest in reading, and parental value placed on reading were assessed in Grade 2. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the mediating role of reading anxiety and the moderating effects of child and parental task values. Grade 1 reading fluency skills predicted Grade 2 fluency, indicating that early reading skills have a direct effect on later reading achievement. Additionally, they predicted Grade 2 reading anxiety, with higher early reading fluency predicting lower anxiety levels. Reading anxiety, in turn, was negatively associated with both Grade 2 reading fluency and reading frequency and it significantly mediated the relationship between Grade 1 fluency and Grade 2 reading frequency. Children's interest in reading was positively associated with both fluency and frequency, while parental value was associated with frequency only. However, neither child nor parent reading values moderated the associations between anxiety and either fluency or frequency. These findings highlight the importance of addressing early reading fluency difficulties and reading anxiety to foster sustained reading engagement and support long‐term reading development.

BackgroundReading achievement is positively associated with reading engagement; however, reading anxiety may undermine this relationship by reinforcing avoidance behaviors and reducing engagement. This study investigated whether reading anxiety mediates the association between early reading fluency and later reading engagement, and whether child interest or parent importance value for reading moderate this relationship.MethodsThe reading skills of approximately 660 children were assessed in Grades 1 and 2. Reading engagement (i.e., reading frequency and avoidance) was measured in both grades, while reading anxiety, children’s interest in reading, and parental value placed on reading were assessed in Grade 2. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the mediating role of reading anxiety and the moderating effects of child and parental task values.ResultsGrade 1 reading fluency skills predicted Grade 2 fluency, indicating that early reading skills have a direct effect on later reading achievement. Additionally, they predicted Grade 2 reading anxiety, with higher early reading fluency predicting lower anxiety levels. Reading anxiety, in turn, was negatively associated with both Grade 2 reading fluency and reading frequency and it significantly mediated the relationship between Grade 1 fluency and Grade 2 reading frequency. Children’s interest in reading was positively associated with both fluency and frequency, while parental value was associated with frequency only. However, neither child nor parent reading values moderated the associations between anxiety and either fluency or frequency.Conclusions These findings highlight the importance of addressing early reading fluency difficulties and reading anxiety to foster sustained reading engagement and support long-term reading development.

This study investigated the trajectories of reading fluency development from age 9 (Grade 2) to 23, focusing on factors participants perceived as influencing their reading development and their self-perceptions of reading abilities in adulthood. A mixed methods approach was employed, combining quantitative measures and retrospective interviews. Six reading trajectories were identified, differing in initial reading abilities and progress. Interview data revealed that participants perceived health-related issues, environmental factors, and personal attributes as shaping their reading development. Groups with low Grade 2 reading skills reported higher rates of dyslexia, while those with typical Grade 2 skills more often mentioned attention-related problems. The group with low Grade 2 reading skills and slow progress was the only one that reported no engagement in reading activities. Most participants also highlighted the role of personal attributes. Notably, those with early reading difficulties but substantial progress reported negative personal attributes, suggesting that early difficulties can have lasting impacts on self-perception. Furthermore, adult self-perceptions of reading abilities were often based more on childhood experiences than on current skills, indicating the long-term psychological effects of early experiences. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive support that fosters both skill development and positive reading self-concepts from an early age.

This study investigated the trajectories of reading fluency development from age 9 (Grade 2) to 23, focusing on factors participants perceived as influencing their reading development and their self-perceptions of reading abilities in adulthood. A mixed methods approach was employed, combining quantitative measures and retrospective interviews. Six reading trajectories were identified, differing in initial reading abilities and progress. Interview data revealed that participants perceived health-related issues, environmental factors, and personal attributes as shaping their reading development. Groups with low Grade 2 reading skills reported higher rates of dyslexia, while those with typical Grade 2 skills more often mentioned attention-related problems. The group with low Grade 2 reading skills and slow progress was the only one that reported no engagement in reading activities. Most participants also highlighted the role of personal attributes. Notably, those with early reading difficulties but substantial progress reported negative personal attributes, suggesting that early difficulties can have lasting impacts on self-perception. Furthermore, adult self-perceptions of reading abilities were often based more on childhood experiences than on current skills, indicating the long-term psychological effects of early experiences. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive support that fosters both skill development and positive reading self-concepts from an early age.

This study explores the directionality of the associations between silent reading fluency and arithmetic fluency development from Grade 1 through Grade 9 (ages 7 to 16) in a large Finnish sample of 2,518 participants. Participants' silent reading and arithmetic fluency skills were assessed at seven time points across Grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model was employed to distinguish between between-person and within-person associations. The model revealed a strong positive correlation between reading and arithmetic fluency at the between-person level, suggesting that individuals proficient in one domain typically excel in the other as well. At the within-person level, significant developmental associations emerged predominantly during the early acquisition phase (Grades 1-3). Between Grades 1 and 2, we identified positive bidirectional effects between reading and arithmetic fluency, indicating that variations in one skill predict variations in the other at a subsequent time point. From Grades 2 to 3, a positive unidirectional path from reading to arithmetic was identified, suggesting that variations in silent reading fluency predict subsequent variations in arithmetic fluency. After Grade 3, no significant cross-lagged paths were identified. These findings highlight the dynamic interplay between reading and arithmetic fluency at different stages of development and that factors influencing time-specific changes in reading and math are more similar during the early phases of schooling and skill development than in later stages. The early bidirectional relationship suggests that fostering reading skills may support arithmetic development and vice versa, particularly in early grades. This suggests that it may be useful to target both domains in the early interventions with children having problems in reading or math to enhance overall academic performance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

This study explores the directionality of the associations between reading fluency and arithmetic fluency development from Grade 1 through Grade 9 (ages 7 to 16) in a large Finnish sample of 2,518 participants. Participants’ reading and arithmetic fluency skills were assessed at seven time points across Grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) was employed to distinguish between between-person and within-person associations. The model revealed a strong positive correlation between reading and arithmetic fluency at the between-person level, suggesting that individuals proficient in one domain typically excel in the other as well. At the within-person level, significant developmental associations emerged predominantly during the early acquisition phase (Grades 1–3). Between Grades 1 and 2, we identified positive bidirectional effects between reading and arithmetic fluency, indicating that variations in one skill predict variations in the other at a subsequent time point. From Grades 2 to 3, a positive unidirectional path from reading to arithmetic was identified, suggesting that variations in reading fluency predict subsequent variations in arithmetic fluency. After Grade 3, no significant cross-lagged paths were identified. These findings highlight the dynamic interplay between reading and arithmetic fluency at different stages of development.