Mikhail Aleksandrovich Krasil’nIkov

Malignant tumors developing in the conditions of chronic hypoxia, unlike normal tissues, quickly acquire resistance to decreased oxygen level. Hypoxia-resistant cells in malignant disease obtain various features promoting their survival: they alter metabolism to aerobic glycolysis, activate angiogenesis-stimulating programs, and rearrange signaling cascades to adapt to hypoxia. At the same time, tumor cells become resistant to chemotherapy and radiation therapy and effectively colonize metastatic niches. This review analyzes signaling pathways which activate in the conditions of chronic hypoxia and underlie tumor adaptation to insufficient oxygen. Apart from the main pathway associated with activation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), such cascades as STAT3, Snail cascade associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition, NRF2 factor responsible for adaptation to reactive oxygen species, and stemness factors OCT4, SOX2 and NANOG are also considered. Effective killing of tumor cells requires simultaneous inhibition of several parts of signaling pathways because disruption of just one will lead to switching of signaling proteins to bypass the blocked one. The article lists various inhibitors of signaling pathways patricipating in tumor cell adaptation to chronic hypoxia and describes their mechanisms of action and targets. Development of successful strategies for treatment of hypoxia-resistant tumors requires identification of an effective combination of the above-mentioned and other inhibitors of the key signaling cascades participating in adaptation to hypoxia.

Background/Objectives: Breast cancer remains one of the most prevalent and life-threatening malignancies worldwide. This study describes the design and biological evaluation of a series of secosteroid–2-pyrazoline hybrids as novel antitumor agents against ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and T47D. Methods: A simple and efficient method for synthesizing secosteroid–2-pyrazoline hybrids was developed starting from 13α-hydroxy-3-methoxy-13,17-secoestra-1,3,5(10)-triene-17-oic acid hydrazide and 1,3-diketones. The resulting secosteroid derivatives were evaluated against hormone-dependent MCF-7 and T47D breast cancer cells. Furthermore, the selectivity and effects of three lead compounds on signaling pathways in MCF-7 cells were examined. Flow cytometry was used to assess the cell-cycle distribution of MCF-7 cells treated with the lead compound. Results: Among the synthesized hybrids, compounds 3f, 3j, and 3k exhibited potent antiproliferative activity with IC₅₀ values of 0.2–0.5 μM against breast cancer cells, while demonstrating very low cytotoxicity towards normal cells (IC₅₀ > 25 μM), indicating a favorable safety profile. The antitumor activity of lead compound 3j was additionally investigated in combination with standard chemotherapeutics, docetaxel and doxorubicin, yielding synergistic effects. The lead compounds showed a dual mechanism of action by inhibiting S6 kinase and promoting Bcl-2 phosphorylation at 0.9 μM, without significantly affecting hormonal breast cancer targets such as ERα, GREB1, and AR. Compound 3j induced apoptosis accompanied by a reduction of the G1/G0 phase in MCF-7 cells. Conclusions: These findings highlight secosteroid–2-pyrazoline hybrids as promising candidates for the development of next-generation breast cancer therapeutics targeting apoptosis and S6K signaling pathways.

Introduction. Tumor cells are known not to undergo replicative aging – usually due to hyperactivation of telomerase, which restores telomere length during each cell division cycle. However, it is possible to induce aging in tumor cells through sublethal doses of cytostatics or irradiation – this is the so-called stress-induced or non-replicative senescence. Studying the mechanisms and regulatory pathways of this process is one of the important areas of modern oncology.Aim. To investigate the mechanisms of doxorubicin-induced senescence in different breast cancer cell subtypes and to explore possible approaches to regulating non-replicative aging.Materials and methods. The experiments were performed on in vitro cultured breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. Cellular senescence was assessed by β-galactosidase activity, morphological changes, and activation of the p53/p21 signaling pathway. Colorimetric assays, reporter analysis, and immunoblotting were used to evaluate the expression and activity of cellular proteins. DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) knockdown was achieved using a standard lentiviral vector encoding antisense RNA against DNMT3A.Results. A potentiating effect of tamoxifen on doxorubicin-induced senescence – including in estrogen-independent breast cancer cells – was demonstrated. Enhanced non-replicative senescence was observed in resistant cells characterized by constitutive suppression of DNMT3A expression. For the first time, it was shown that DNMT3A suppression – either via decitabine treatment or DNMT3A knockdown – leads to an increase and maintenance of non-replicative senescence in MCF-7 cells.Conclusion. The findings indicate that non-replicative senescence in breast cancer cells can be enhanced and sustained in the presence of the antiestrogen tamoxifen, and underscore the key role of DNMT3A in regulating doxorubicin-induced senescence.

One of the hallmarks of malignant neoplasms is their ability to sustain growth under hypoxic conditions resulting from insufficient oxygenation of tumor tissues. Prolonged hypoxia is associated with the gradual adaptation of tumor cells to low oxygen levels, leading to the enhanced survival, increased metastatic potential, and development of resistance to anticancer therapies. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms underlying adaptation of breast cancer cell to prolonged hypoxia and maintenance of the hypoxia-tolerant phenotype. Using long-term culturing under low oxygen conditions (1% O₂), we established hypoxia-adapted sublines of luminal (MCF-7) and triple-negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells, characterized by a stable growth in a hypoxic environment. The acquisition of hypoxia tolerance was accompanied by the activation of the HIF-1α-dependent transcription factor STAT3 and persistent overexpression of Snail, a key downstream effector of STAT3. The maintenance and stabilization of hypoxia-tolerant phenotype are mediated by miR-181a-2, which targets the STAT3/Snail signaling axis in the resistant cells. Analysis of DNA methylation status revealed no significant changes in the expression or activity of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in the hypoxia-adapted cells. However, pharmacological inhibition of DNMTs using decitabine, as well as DNMT knockdown, increased cell sensitivity to hypoxia and partially reversed the hypoxia-resistant phenotype, which was accompanied by the activation of pro-apoptotic p53 signaling. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the acquired hypoxia tolerance in breast cancer cells is mediated, at least in part, by the activation of the miR-181a-2/STAT3/Snail signaling pathway. Furthermore, the use of demethylating agents may represent a promising therapeutic approach to targeting hypoxia-tolerant cancer cell populations.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the formation and maintenance of drug resistance in cancer cells. Previously, we demonstrated that prolonged treatment of estrogen-dependent MCF-7 breast cancer cells with exosomes derived from estrogen-resistant MCF-7/T cells leads to a partial loss of estrogen sensitivity in MCF-7 cells. Moreover, repeated transfection with one of the exosomal microRNAs — microRNA-181a-2 — induced an irreversible decrease in hormonal sensitivity in the recipient cells. In the present work, to further investigate the possible mechanism of miR-181a-2-induced acquired resistance, we analyzed the effect of multiple miR-181a-2 transfections on the expression of cellular miR-181a-2 and related signaling proteins. Methods: MTT-assay, transient transfection, lentiviral infection, qRT-PCR, immunoblotting, and reporter assay. Results: We found that multiple transfections with miR-181a-2 resulted in a marked increase in cellular miR-181a-2 precursor levels, whereas single transfection had no such effect. Similarly, stable transfection with miR-181a-2 led to increased levels of cellular miR-181a-2 and its host gene, MIR181A2HG, which was associated with partial resistance to tamoxifen. Analysis of the genomic DNA encoding miR-181a-2 revealed no changes in copy number in transfected cells. Furthermore, we identified the transcription factor Snail as a key mediator of miR-181a-2–induced resistance and demonstrated its role in the formation of an autoregulatory loop of miR-181a-2 and the maintenance of cell resistance. Conclusion: Overall, these results reveal a novel mechanism of resistance-associated signaling pathway rearrangement based on the formation of a miR-181a-2 autoregulatory loop.

Aim: Resistance to hormonal and targeted therapies in breast cancer limits treatment efficacy. Epigenetic alterations, including changes mediated by DNA methyltransferases, play a key role in this process. Previously, we identified that resistance to tamoxifen and rapamycin is associated with the suppression of DNMT3A. This study aims to further explore the mechanisms underlying this suppression, with a focus on identifying NR6A1 as a novel regulatory factor. Methods: Acquisition of resistant breast cancer cell sublines, MTT-test, immunoblotting, transient transfection and reporter analysis, lentiviral infection, qRT-PCR, and analysis of methylation using bisulfite pyrosequencing. Results: Our findings indicate that the development of cross-resistance in breast cancer cells to hormonal and targeted therapies involves a shift in cell signaling to alternative AKT pathways, marked by a localized suppression of the NR6A1/DNMT3A axis and associated DNA methylation changes. We demonstrated the critical role of NR6A1 downregulation in resistance development. Additionally, we observed activation of Snail - a key regulator in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition - as a mediator of the effects of NR6A1 depletion, establishing a direct link between Snail expression and resistance formation. Conclusion: The coordinated suppression of NR6A1 and DNMT3A may contribute to sustaining the resistant phenotype in breast cancer cells. This pathway could serve as a predictive marker, helping guide the selection of optimal therapeutic strategies for breast cancer treatment in the future.

Введение. Исследование влияния облучения или любых других ДНК-повреждающих агентов на чувствительность опухолей к консервативной терапии, лекарственной или гормональной, относится к числу наиболее актуальных задач, во многом определяющих целесообразность комбинированной терапии онкологических больных. Цель исследования – изучение влияния облучения на активность ключевых сигнальных белков и уровень гормональной зависимости клеток рака молочной железы. Материалы и методы. Эксперименты проводились на культивируемых in vitro клетках эстрогензависимого рака молочной железы MCF-7. В качестве экспериментальной модели для изучения реакции опухолевых клеток на повреждения ДНК использовалось ультрафиолетовое (УФ) облучение в диапазоне 254 нм с интенсивностью 25–50 Дж/м². Скорость роста клеток определяли с помощью МТТ-теста; выживаемость клеток после облучения анализировали с использованием колониеобразующего теста. Определение транскрипционной активности рецептора эстрогенов проводили методом репортерного анализа, экспрессии клеточных белков – методом иммуноблоттинга. Результаты. Однократное УФ-облучение клеток MCF-7 приводит к резкому повышению уровня апоптотических маркеров: р53, cPARP, подавлению экспрессии белков ростового сигналинга: CDK4/6 и рецептора эстрогенов α (ERα). На этом фоне наблюдается усиление фосфорилирования протеинкиназы Akt и выраженное повышение экспрессии Snail1 – одного из ключевых белков эпителиально-мезенхимального перехода. В клетках УФ-резистентной сублинии MCF-7/UVR, полученной в условиях повторяющихся циклов облучения, уровень белков апоптотического и ростового сигналингов (р53, cPARP, CDK4/6) возвращается к контрольному значению, за исключением фосфорилированной формы Akt и Snail1, содержание которых остается высоким. Трансфекция в клетки MCF-7 плазмиды, экспрессирующей Snail1, сопровождается активацией апоптотического сигналинга, снижением активности ERα и развитием частичной гормональной резистентности; при этом чувствительность клеток к облучению практически не меняется. Трансфекция микроРНК-181а-2 – одной из микроРНк, ассоциированной с резистентностью клеток, – одновременно активирует Akt и Snail1 и приводит к развитию перекрестной резистентности клеток к облучению и гормональным препаратам. Заключение. Полученные данные позволяют рассматривать активацию Snail1 под действием облучения в качестве одного из факторов, участвующих в дерегуляции эстрогенового сигналинга и формировании устойчивости клеток к гормональным препаратам, в то время как одновременная активация Akt и Snail1 сопровождается развитием перекрестной резистентности к облучению и гормональным соединениям.

Introduction. Rearrangement of molecular pathways and activation of bypass signaling determine the progression of tumor cell resistance to various drugs. Study of the common features of resistant formation mechanisms is essential for breast and other cancer beneficial treatments.Materials and methods. The present work was performed on estrogen receptor α ERα-positive (ERα – estrogen receptor α) McF-7 breast cancer cells, established sublines resistant to the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin or antiestrogen tamoxifen, and ERα-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Methods used include MTT test, transient transfection, immunoblotting, real-time polymerase chain reaction and methylation analysis by bisulfite pyrosequencing.Results. We have shown that the resistance of breast cancer cells to targeted and hormonal drugs is associated with the suppression of DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) and respective changes in DNA methylation; DNMT3A knockdown results in the partial resistance to both drugs demonstrating the pivotal role of DNMT3A suppression in the progression of cell resistance.Conclusion. Totally, the results obtained highlight the possible mechanism of tumor cell resistance to targeting/hormonal drugs based on the deregulation of DNMTs expression and demonstrate direct connection between DNMT3A suppression and resistance progression.

Introduction: Resistance to chemotherapy and/or irradiation remains one of the key features of malignant tumors, which largely limits the efficiency of antitumor therapy. In this work, we studied the progression mechanism of breast cancer cell resistance to target drugs, including mTOR blockers, and in particular, we studied the exosome function in intercellular resistance transfer. Methods: The cell viability was assessed by the MTT assay, exosomes were purified by successive centrifugations, immunoblotting was used to evaluate protein expression, AP-1 activity was analyzed using reporter assay. Results: In experiments on the MCF-7 cell line (breast cancer) and the MCF-7/Rap subline that is resistant to rapamycin, the capability of resistant cell exosomes to trigger a similar rapamycin resistance in the parent MCF-7 cells was demonstrated. Exosome-induced resistance reproduces the changes revealed in MCF-7/Rap resistant cells, including the activation of ERK/AP-1 signaling, and it remains for a long time, for at least several months, after exosome withdrawal. We have shown that both the MCF-7 subline resistant to rapamycin and cells having exosome-triggered resistance demonstrate a stable decrease in the expression of DNMT3A, the key enzyme responsible for DNA methylation. Knockdown of DNMT3A in MCF-7 cells by siRNA leads to partial cell resistance to rapamycin; thus, the DNMT3A suppression is regarded as one of the necessary elements for the development of acquired rapamycin resistance. Conclusion: We propose that DNA demethylation followed by increased expression of key genes may be one of the factors responsible for the progression and maintenance of the resistant cell phenotype that includes exosome-induced resistance.

The rearrangement of molecular pathways and the activation of bypass signaling determine the progression of tumor cell resistance to various drugs that specifically block target signaling proteins. The present work was performed on the MCF-7 breast cancer cells and established sublines, resistant to mTOR inhibitor rapamycin or antiestrogen tamoxifen, developed under prolonged cell treatment with rapamycin or tamoxifen, respectively. We have shown that both resistant sublines demonstrate the cross-resistance to rapamycin and tamoxifen and are characterized with the common signaling changes, namely—blocking of the estrogen receptor α (ERα) transcriptional activity and constitutive activation of Akt signaling. Analysis of the epigenetic machinery revealed the drastic suppression of the level of DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) in both the resistant sublines that were correlated with the demethylation of the LINE-1 repeats. Knockdown of the DNMT3A via siRNA results in the progression of partial resistance of MCF-7 cells to both tamoxifen and rapamycin, supporting the important role of DNA methylation in the formation of the resistant phenotype. Totally, the results obtained highlight the possible mechanism of the tumor cell resistance to targeting/hormonal drugs based on the rearrangement of DNA methylation profile and activation of the bypass signaling pathways.