Xiaoming Zhao

Perovskite solar cells have achieved remarkable progress as the third‐generation photovoltaics (PVs), owing to their low manufacturing cost and high‐power conversion efficiency, and are now advancing toward industrialization. However, poor long‐term operational stability remains a key obstacle to their industrial commercialization. In particular, when scaling from millimeter‐scale devices to perovskite solar modules (PSMs), the increase in module dimensions, variations in fabrication processes, and the influence of practical operating conditions introduce a series of degradation mechanisms specific to PSMs. To provide a clear understanding of stability challenges at the module level, this review systematically summarizes the degradation mechanisms unique to PSMs. Starting from fundamental fabrication processes and operational principles, we comprehensively analyze degradation phenomena associated with uniform film formation, interconnection architecture, encapsulation design, and thermoelectrochemical stability. In addition, recent progress in mitigation strategies addressing these stability issues is summarized and organized. Finally, perspectives on future research directions in module stability are briefly discussed to provide practical guidance for developing reliable, durable, and commercially viable perovskite PV modules.

Selective precursor coordination enables homogeneous prenucleation clusters, uniform crystallization, and efficient, outdoor-stable perovskite photovoltaics.

The spiro‐OMeTAD hole‐transport layer (HTL) underpins high‐performance n–i–p perovskite solar cells (PSCs), but conventional hygroscopic lithium dopants and volatile additives undermine operational stability and complicate module fabrication. Here we introduce a synergistic dopant–additive strategy that replaces both with a thermally stable Zn salt and vinylene carbonate (VC). The Zn:VC combination oxidizes spiro‐OMeTAD without air, promotes p‑radical formation, and raises the HTL glass‐transition temperature above 150°C. Consequently, we achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 26.3% for unit cells (0.16 cm ² ) and 24.4% (23.96% certified) for modules (11.5 cm ² )—among the highest reported for n–i–p perovskite modules. Modules retain 90% of initial efficiency after 2000 h damp‑heat exposure, 96% after 2500 h maximum‑power‑point tracking, and exhibit stable output over 30 days outdoor, demonstrating markedly improved operational robustness.

The spiro‐OMeTAD hole‐transport layer (HTL) underpins high‐performance n–i–p perovskite solar cells (PSCs), but conventional hygroscopic lithium dopants and volatile additives undermine operational stability and complicate module fabrication. Here we introduce a synergistic dopant–additive strategy that replaces both with a thermally stable Zn salt and vinylene carbonate (VC). The Zn:VC combination oxidizes spiro‐OMeTAD without air, promotes p‑radical formation, and raises the HTL glass‐transition temperature above 150°C. Consequently, we achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 26.3% for unit cells (0.16 cm ² ) and 24.4% (23.96% certified) for modules (11.5 cm ² )—among the highest reported for n–i–p perovskite modules. Modules retain 90% of initial efficiency after 2000 h damp‑heat exposure, 96% after 2500 h maximum‑power‑point tracking, and exhibit stable output over 30 days outdoor, demonstrating markedly improved operational robustness.

SnO ₂ is a benchmark electron transport material for perovskite solar cells (PSCs). However, SnO ₂ films from the conventional chemical bath deposition (CBD) are limited by impurities and defects that accelerate non‐radiative recombination and compromise device stability. Here, we present a volatile additive engineering strategy using pyruvic acid (PA) as a dual‐functional nucleation promoter and surface modulator during SnO ₂ deposition. Owing to its volatility (sublimation at 145°C), PA can be effectively removed during annealing, resulting in cleaner SnO ₂ surfaces with reduced residual groups. This is accompanied by a decrease in oxygen‐related defect densities in the SnO ₂ layer. This improvement leads to enhanced charge recombination and improved thermal stability at the buried interface. Consequently, PA‐engineered PSCs achieve a power conversion efficiency of 26.17%, together with improved device stability, retaining >80% of their initial efficiency after 900 h of continuous operation, 1000 h at 65°C, and 30 days under 30% relative humidity. Furthermore, this approach is compatible with large‐area fabrication, yielding efficiencies of 24.83% for 1 cm ² lab‐scale cells and 20.21% for 30 cm × 30 cm industrial‐scale solar modules. These results suggest that controlling additive volatility improves CBD‐SnO ₂ quality and offers a promising route for stable, scalable perovskite solar cells.

Defect complexity and dynamic coupling in perovskites limit single‐target passivation and often incur lattice damage when highly reactive agents are used. Here, we introduce two additives, perfluoropinacol (PFP) and 2,6‐dichlorobenzyl chloride (DCB), to achieve synergistic, multiple defect passivation while promoting controlled crystallization. With multiple functional sites targeting distinct defect species (such as V _I vacancy, V _Pb vacancy, Pb _I antisite, and so on), PFP and DCB act synergistically to achieve comprehensive, integrated defect passivation. The combined action improves defect passivation, delivering high‐performance devices: champion PCEs of 25.47% (n‐i‐p) and 26.47% (p‐i‐n). Unencapsulated devices exhibit durable stability, retaining 95% of initial efficiency after 1300 h at 65°C and 94% after 1000 h under 1‐sun maximum power point tracking (MPPT). This cooperative strategy provides a practical pathway to simultaneously regulate crystallization and suppress deep/shallow defects, advancing efficient and stable perovskite photovoltaics toward industrial deployment.

Compared with conventional Spiro-OMeTAD, the anisotropic SF-MPA-MCz hole transport material reduces the cell-to-module performance gap when scaling all-inorganic perovskite solar cells from lab-scale devices to large-area modules.

Perovskite solar cells stand out due to their excellent optoelectronic properties, relatively simple fabrication methods, and tunable bandgaps. Consequently, their wide-bandgap variants (1.65–2.0 eV) are particularly well-suited for use as top cells in tandem solar cell configurations. However, their development remains hindered by certain challenges, such as halide segregation and high defect density. While previous reviews have summarized advances in this field, there is a lack of a comprehensive discussion that spans from challenges to development and applications. This article, from the perspectives of material and process optimization, specifically focuses on the latest breakthroughs achieved over the past year. It systematically outlines strategies, including additive engineering, crystallization kinetics regulation, and interface engineering, to realize defect passivation, film quality improvement, and device performance enhancement. This review not only delves into the mechanistic understanding of halide segregation but also analyzes recent research progress on the integration of wide-bandgap perovskite top cells with various bottom cells, such as copper indium gallium selenide, silicon, narrow-bandgap perovskites, and organic solar cells. Finally, it highlights future research directions, emphasizing that addressing the intrinsic stability of materials and clarifying the microscopic mechanisms of phase segregation are crucial for advancing their industrial applications.

2D/3D perovskite heterostructures have advanced the performance of perovskite solar cells. However, ion diffusion at the 2D/3D interface under illumination and prolonged heat affects device stability and scalability. Here, we studied the electron‐withdrawing strength of aromatic ammonium ligand on perovskite interface stability. We tuned the electron‐withdrawing strength of the ligand through the incorporation of oxygen atoms on heterocyclic rings, and found that the ligand possessing the strongest electron‐withdrawing capability effectively suppresses 2D formation while preventing cation interdiffusion and maximizing defect passivation, outperforming conventional 2D/3D strategies. Consequently, we achieved power conversion efficiencies of 26.1% in 0.16 cm ² lab‐scale cells and 19.1% in 809 cm ² industrial‐scale solar modules. These encapsulated modules exhibited excellent damp‐heat (85°C/85% relative humidity) stability and operational durability, with <10% efficiency loss after 2500 and 3000 h, respectively. Moreover, the modules maintained steady power output over 30 days of outdoor operation, underscoring their potential for practical real‐world applications.