Hamidreza Aghaei

Sulfonamides, with the general formula R-SO2NR1R2, have attracted great attention since the early discovery of sulfonamide-containing antibacterial drugs. The combinations of certain sulfonamides and other drug molecules to form sulfonamide hybrids are being used to develop novel formulations with greater effectiveness and in a huge range of therapeutic applications such as antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitubercular, antiviral, antidiabetic, antiproliferative, carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, antimalarial, anticancer and other medicinal agents. Part C of this review presents recent advances in designing and developing multicomponent sulfonamide hybrids containing more than one biologically active heterocycle, such as coumarin, indole, pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrazole, triazole, oxazole, oxadiazole, triazine, quinazoline, and thiadiazol. This review aims to highlight the status of the hybridization technique in synthesizing biological and computational studies of novel sulfonamide hybrids that were designed and presented between 2016 and 2020.

Sulfonamide compounds, also known as sulfa drugs, are a significant class of synthetic bacteriostatic antimicrobials and were the primary source of therapy against bacterial infections before the introduction of penicillin in 1941. Hybridization of sulfonamides with various pharmaceutically active heterocyclic moieties leads to sulfonamide hybrids with a wide variety of biological activities. Part B of this review presents the most recent advances in designing and developing more two-component sulfonamide hybrids containing triazole, thiadiazole, triazine, oxazole/ benzoxazole, isoxazole, oxadiazole, imidazole, benzimidazole, furan, benzofuran, thiophene, pyrrole, indazole, tetrazole, chromene/ chromone, pyridazine, quinoxaline, acridine, phthalazine, and xanthone between 2015 and 2020. We hope this review helps the scientific community in designing more useful sulfonamide hybrid drugs.

Sulfonamides constitute an important class of drugs, with many types of pharmacological agents possessing antibacterial, anti-carbonic anhydrase, anti-obesity, diuretic, hypoglycemic, antithyroid, antitumor, and anti-neuropathic pain activities. The sulfonamides have the general formula R-SO2NHR', in which the functional group is bound to an aromatic, heterocycle, aliphatic, and so on. The nature of the R and R' moiety is variable, starting with hydrogen and ranging to a variety of moieties incorporating organic compounds such as coumarin, isoxazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, pyrrole, and so many other pharmaceutical active scaffolds that lead to a considerable range of hybrids named as sulfonamide hybrids. Part A of this review presents the most recent advances in designing and developing two-component sulfonamide hybrids containing coumarin, indole, quinoline, isoquinoline, chalcone, pyrazole/pyrazoline, quinazoline, pyrimidine, thiazole, benzothiazole, and pyridine between 2015 and 2020. Specifically, the authors review the scientific reports on the synthesis and biological activity of this kind of hybrid agent.

Due to the serious adverse futures of some anticancer drugs, the determination of trace amounts of these drugs by simple analytical techniques is of great interest. In this regard, knowing about the mechanism of the analyte with the sensing material plays an important role. Nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO NPs) modified by a carbon paste electrode (NiO-CPE) showed an irreversible cyclic voltammetric (CV) behavior in the NaOH (pH 13) supporting electrolyte based on the peak separation of 311 mV. Its peak current was decreased by adding tamoxifen (TAM), confirming that TAM molecules can consume NiO before participating in the electrode reaction. For this goal, TAM can be oxidized or reduced, and the corresponding mechanisms are schematically illustrated in the text. This study focused on the kinetic aspects of the process. Based on the CV results, a surface coverage (Γ) value of 2.72 × 10^-5 mol NiO per cm² was obtained with charge transfer coefficients α_a and α_c of 0.317 and 0.563, respectively. α_a and α_c values were changed to 0.08 and 0.72 in the presence of TAM. Further, the rate constant (k _s) value was 0.021 ± 0.01 s^-1 in the presence of TAM. In linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), an α value of about 0.636 ± 0.023 and an exchange rate constant (k _o) value of about 0.097 ± 0.031 s^-1 were obtained in the absence of TAM, which changed to 0.62 ± 0.081 and 0.089 ± 0.021 s^-1 in the presence of TAM, respectively. Despite more published papers, when the TAM analyte was added to the NaOH supporting electrolyte, both anodic and cathodic peak currents of the modified NiO-CPE decreased. We suggested some reasons for this decreased peak current, and four mechanisms were illustrated for the electrode response in the presence of TAM.