Salome Mahlo

Background: Oral candidiasis is caused by Candida albicans, which is most prevalent in immunocompromised patients. Aim: The study aimed to investigate the antifungal activity of plant species used for oral candidiasis against C. albicans. Setting: The study was conducted in Aganang Local Municipality, Capricorn District, Limpopo province, South Africa. Methods: A survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire supplemented with guided field walks with traditional health practitioners to gather information on medicinal plants used to treat oral candidiasis. Nine plant species (Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd., Blepharis subvolubilis subsp. subvolubilis C.B. Clarke, Enicostemma axillare [Lam.], Helichrysum caespititium [DC.] Harv., Solanum incanum L., Waltheria indica L., Ximenia caffra Sond. var. caffra, Ximenia caffra Sond. var. natalensis and Ziziphus mucronata Willd.) were investigated for antifungal activity. The plant material were extracted with solvents of varying polarities: acetone, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, hexane, methanol, and water. The Micro-dilution and bioautography assays were used to determine the antifungal activity of the plant extracts. Results: Leaf extracts of A. afra and S. incanum were more active against C. albicans with MIC values of 0.02 mg/mL. Bioautography assay demonstrated active compounds in S. incanum, W. indica and X. caffra var. caffra extracts developed in Benzene: Ethanol: Ammonia hydroxide (BEA). Conclusion: An ethnobotanical survey is a worthy starting point in selecting potential plant species for ethnopharmacological studies. Contribution: The effectiveness of oral administrations of the medicinal plants was confirmed by the excellent antifungal activity of the aqueous extracts.

Background: ‘U wela’ also known as ‘Divhu’ in ‘Tshivenda’ is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a combination of fungal and bacterial microorganisms that affects males because of unprotected sexual encounters with a woman who has had an abortion or miscarriage. Aim: The study aimed to investigate medicinal plants used to treat ‘u wela’ and determine their biological activity against Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Candida albicans. Setting: Eight plant species (Elaeodendron transvaalense[Burtt Davy] R.H. Archer, Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Oliv, Xanthocercis zambesiaca Baker, Cassia abbreviata subsp. beareana [Holmes] Brenan, Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg, Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw., Mimusops zeyheri Sond, and Capparis tomentosa Lam.) used to combat ‘u wela’ were selected from the Ethnomedicinal plant’s database of over 300 medicinal plants used for medicinal purposes in humans, in the Vhembe district, Limpopo province, South Africa. Methods: The antimicrobial activity of the plant extracts was investigated against Candida albicans and Neisseria gonorrhoeae using serial dilution and bioautography assays. Results: The plant extracts of A. versicolor and C. abbreviata had excellent activity with a low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). value of 0.02 and 0.07 mg/mL, respectively. In bioautograms developed in benzene/ethanol/ammonia hydroxide (BEA), active compounds were visible in the extracts of A. versicolor. Conclusion: A. versicolor had excellent antimicrobial activity and may be used in traditional therapy to combat ‘u wela’. Contribution: The study has demonstrated that A. versicolor is a promising plant species that could lead to the discovery of novel drugs to combat ‘u wela’.

Background: Antioxidants present in plant extracts prevent free radicals from causing chronic diseases in humans. Aim: The study investigated 12 medicinal plants (Kleinia longiflora DC., Berchemia discolor [Klotzsch] Hemsl., Persea americana Mill., Sansevieria hyacinthoides [L.] Druce, Dichrostachys cinerea [L.] Wright &Arn, Withania somnifera Dunal [Ashgandh], Momordica balsamina L., Lonchocarpus capassa, Pappea capensis, ‘Rhus lancea L. fil’ with ‘Searsia lancea (L.F.) F.A. Barkley’ Peltophorum africanum, Maytenus heterophylla [Eckl. & Zeyh.] Robson) for antioxidant activity using the qualitative and quantitative 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Setting: The plant species were selected from the ethnomedicinal plant database of over 300 medicinal plants used for therapeutic purposes in Limpopo province. Methods: The plant materials were extracted with solvents of various polarities such as acetone, dichloromethane (DCM), methanol, hexane, and water. The qualitative and quantitative DPPH methods were used to determine the antioxidant activities of plant extracts. Results: The yellow bands revealed the presence of antioxidant compounds against the purple background on the Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) plates. Methanol, hexane, and water extracts of L. capassa were the most active radical scavengers in the DPPH assay among the six medicinal plants screened. Plant extracts of P. africanum showed strong antioxidant activity by inhibiting DPPH, compared with the standard ascorbic acid. Conclusion: The findings indicate that some extracts can be used as an easily accessible source of natural antioxidants. Contribution: The findings revealed that the plant species investigated displayed noteworthy antioxidant activity, which provides scientific evidence for their utilisation by traditional health practitioners to treat fungal infections.

Background: Lonchocarpus capassa is a medicinal plant used to treat diseases such as fungal infections, diarrhoea, oral candidiasis, and stomach complaints in South Africa. Aim: The study aimed to investigate the cytotoxicity and antifungal compounds isolated from L. capassa leaf extracts. Setting: The study was conducted in Muduluni village, Makhado Local Municipality, Limpopo province. Methods: Leaf extracts were screened for antifungal activity against fungal pathogens: Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus. Bioassay-guided fractionation using column chromatography of the acetone extract led to the isolation of six antifungal compounds. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy and Mass Spectrometry were used for the identification of compounds. The antioxidant activity of the plant extracts was investigated using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays. Cytotoxicity of isolated compounds was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay against Vero monkey kidney cells. Results: The plant extract had an excellent minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) value of 40 μg/mL against the microorganisms. Compound 1 was identified as Lupeol, Compound 3 as Friedelin, and Compound 4 as 6-(γ,γ-Dimethylallyl)-3’,4’-dimethoxy-6”,6”-dimethylpyrano-[2”,3”:7,8]-flavanone (Compound 4). Compounds 2 and 5 were not identified because of the presence of mixtures of long-chain fatty acids. Friedelin was the most active radical scavenger in the DPPH assay. The compounds were not toxic with an LC50 value of ˃ 0.2 mg/mL. Conclusion: Screening of medicinal plants could provide lead to the discovery of novel antifungal agents. Contribution: The results support the traditional use of L. capassa to combat fungal infections in humans.

Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development

Dermatophytosis is a fungal infection of the skin caused by a group of pathogenic fungi known as dermatophytes. Therefore, we investigated those medicinal plants that were being used by local people and traditional healers to treat skin infections in the Mopani District, Limpopo Province. A survey was conducted through the use of a semistructured program to gather information on the common names, plant parts used, methods of preparation, and administration of the medicine. Findings of the survey revealed that over 30 plant species were used for the treatment of skin infections in the area. The most common local mode of medicinal preparation to treat skin was decoction (37%), followed by paste (21%), infusion (19%), poultice (9%), smoke (7%), maceration (5%), and steam (2%). Of the species, only 12 (Ficus sur L., Peltophorum africanum Sond., Vangueria infausta Burch. subsp. infausta, Diospyros mespilliformis Hochst. ex. A. DC., Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp. mucronata, Euclea divinorum Hiern, Ximenia caffra Sond., Dombeya rotundifolia Hochst., Ficus sycomorus L., Sideroxylon inerme L. subsp inerme, Parinari curattellifolia Planch. ex Benth., and Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock) were selected based on literature and ethnobotanical information. We further investigated the antifungal activity of acetone and aqueous extracts of the above mentioned selected plant species using serial dilution assay against Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis, and Candida albicans. All plant extracts were active against the tested microorganisms with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging between 0.02 mg/mL and 1.25 mg/mL. In the bioautography assay, more active compounds were visible in acetone and water extracts of E. divinorum. No active compounds were observed in some plant extracts with excellent antifungal activity, as shown in the microdilution assay. Findings, in general, suggest that the identified plant species, especially those with extracts showing relatively low MIC values, are playing a big role in treating skin infections in Mopani District.

Background: Invasive alien plant species (IAPs) are plants that have migrated from one geographical region to non-native region either intentional or unintentional.The general view of IAPs in environment is regarded as destructive to the ecosystem and they pose threat to native vegetation and species. However, some of these IAPs are utilized by local inhabitants as a substitute for scarce indigenous plants. The aim of the study is to conduct ethnobotanical survey on medicinal usage of invasive plant species in Waterberg District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Materials and methods: An ethnobotanical survey on invasive plant species was conducted to distinguish species used for the treatment of various ailments in the Waterberg, District in the area dominated by Bapedi traditional healers. About thirty Bapedi traditional healers (30) were randomly selected via the snowball method. A guided field work by traditional healers and a semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather information. The questionnaire was designed to gather information based on the local name of plants, plant parts used and methods of preparation which is administered by the traditional healers. Results: The study revealed that Schinus molle L., Catharanthus roseus (L.), Datura stramonium L., Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw., Opuntia ficus- indica, Sambucus canadensis L., Ricinus communis L., Melia azedarch L., Argemone ochroleuca and Eriobotrya japonica are used for treatment of various diseases such as chest complaint, blood purification, asthma, hypertension and infertility. The most plant parts that were used are 57.6% leaves, followed by 33.3% roots, and whole plant, seeds and bark at 3% each. Noticeably, most of these plants are cultivated (38%), followed by 28% that are common to the study area, 20% abundant, 12% wild, and 3% occasionally. Schinus molle is the most frequently used plant species for the treatment of various ailments in the study area. National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act (NEMBA) (10/2004) and Conservation of Agricultural Resource Act (CARA) were consulted to confirm the invaders status. Only eight plants (60%) are regulated by CARA (10/2004). Of 10 IAPs, 80% (8 species) are listed in both NEMBA and CARA legislation. Only 20% (2 species) are listed in NEMBA alone. Conclusion: Invasive alien plants are utilized by communities to combat various ailments in humans and these plants can help to reduce pressure on heavily harvested indigenous plant.