Royford Bundi Magiri

Objective: This abstract examines the interrelationship of climate change and dairy production systems, highlighting its impact on ongoing climate shifts. While the dairy industry is recognized for contributing significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, there remains a critical knowledge gap regarding the sensitivity and susceptibility of these systems in the framework of global warming. This assessment emphasizes the multifaceted effects and formidable challenges that emerge from climate change's impact on dairy cows, particularly in Fiji. The escalating occurrence of heat stress among dairy cows, a direct consequence of rising temperatures and altered climatic patterns, is of paramount concern. The intricate relationship between climate variables and dairy cow well-being, particularly milk production, emerges as a central focal point. By spotlighting the ramifications of climate change on dairy cattle in Fiji, this abstract seeks to elevate the discourse on sustainable dairy farming practices and underscores the urgent need to develop adaptive strategies to address these challenges. Theoretical Framework: The theoretical framework centres on the impact of climate change on dairy production systems, particularly focusing on heat stress among dairy cows in Fiji. It considers the interconnections between climate variables, such as temperature fluctuations and atmospheric CO₂ levels, and their effects on milk production, feed quality, water availability, and disease prevalence. This framework builds on climate change models (like those from the IPCC) and agricultural adaptation theories to explore how these environmental factors disrupt dairy farming operations and animal health. Method: The paper synthesizes findings from existing literature and research, using a literature review methodology. It compiles data and insights from various studies on climate change's effects on livestock, drawing from regional and international studies to understand how climate shifts impact dairy cows. The method involves analyzing specific impacts on feed, water usage, disease dynamics, and heat stress, aiming to provide a holistic understanding of how these factors interact under Fiji's unique climate conditions. Results and Discussion: Impact on Feed and Water: The paper highlights that higher temperatures and CO₂ levels affect the quality and quantity of forage, with implications for feed availability and livestock diet. Increased water demand under heat stress also puts pressure on water resources, critical for dairy cows’ hydration and metabolic processes. Disease and Heat Stress: Rising temperatures are linked to increased disease susceptibility and vector-borne diseases in livestock. Heat stress is particularly detrimental, reducing milk production and reproductive efficiency. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Dairy cows contribute to methane and nitrous oxide emissions, exacerbating climate change. The study discusses how dairy farming in Fiji must balance productivity with reducing its environmental footprint. Adaptation Strategies: Suggested strategies include altering feed practices, adopting new management systems (like agroforestry), and improving shelter and cooling systems to reduce heat stress and its impacts on dairy production. Research Implications: The research provides important insights into sustainable dairy farming in Fiji. Its findings encourage policies and practices focused on climate adaptation, especially in mitigating heat stress and water scarcity issues. By emphasizing the need for climate-resilient livestock management, the study calls for continued research and investment in sustainable agriculture to secure Fiji's dairy industry against climate-related disruptions. Originality/Value: This study uniquely examines the specific effects of climate change on dairy cows in Fiji, a region often overlooked in global agricultural research. Its value lies in highlighting the vulnerabilities of Pacific Island livestock systems to climate change, offering targeted recommendations for resilience-building in dairy production under changing environmental conditions.

Climate change affects weather patterns, leading to changes in average temperatures, increased frequency, variability, and intensity of extreme weather events, especially in the Pacific Island countries. Climate change poses the greatest threats to the sustainability of smallholder dairy farming in Fiji, with the farmers being highly vulnerable, yet their adaptive capacity is low. Additionally, the Pacific’s current and future sustainable livestock development will heavily depend on its ability to cope with climate variability and adapt to future climate changes. Available data indicate that there is high spatial and temporal variability of rainfall over Fiji Island with the mean annual rainfall ranging from 1600 to 3600 mm, with Rotuma station receiving the highest rainfall over Fiji Island. Rainfall in Fiji has shown an increasing and decreasing trend, where both minimum and maximum temperatures have shown a decreasing trend. This will have a great impact on the smallholder dairy farmers who consist of over 95% of the existing farmers. Using available information and drawing from other contexts or countries where data or information is unavailable, we provide an overview of dairy production in Fiji as a prototype to other Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs), highlighting smallholder dairy systems in the Fijian dairy sector, challenges, and opportunities of the dairy sector in the PICTs. We conclude that climate change significantly impacts dairy production in Fiji and the Pacific.

The threat of climate change and global warming is gaining worldwide recognition. The African continent, because of its size, diversity, and its new status as a “hub” of livestock production, need to gear up to mitigate the possible impacts of climate change on animal health. The aim of this review article is to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the influence of climate and climate change on the health of food-producing animals. Depending on its intensity and duration, heat stress may directly affect livestock health by causing metabolic disruptions, oxidative stress, and immune suppression, causing increased disease susceptibility, and death. Animal health could also be affected by emergence and re-emergence of vector- and non-vector-borne pathogens that are highly dependent on climatic conditions. The response to these challenges requires community participation in the adaptation of animal production systems to new environments and strengthening the efficiency of veterinary services delivery combined with well-coordinated public health services, since many emerging human diseases are zoonotic.

The threat of climate change and global warming is gaining worldwide recognition. The African continent, because of its size, diversity, and its new status as a “hub” of livestock production, need to gear up to mitigate the possible impacts of climate change on animal health. The aim of this review article is to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the influence of climate and climate change on the health of food-producing animals. Depending on its intensity and duration, heat stress may directly affect livestock health by causing metabolic disruptions, oxidative stress, and immune suppression, causing increased disease susceptibility, and death. Animal health could also be affected by emergence and re-emergence of vector- and non-vector-borne pathogens that are highly dependent on climatic conditions. The response to these challenges requires community participation in the adaptation of animal production systems to new environments and strengthening the efficiency of veterinary services delivery combined with well-coordinated public health services, since many emerging human diseases are zoonotic.

Vaccination is the most efficient method of protection against influenza infections. However, the rapidly mutating viruses and development of new strains make it necessary to develop new influenza vaccines annually. Hence, vaccines that stimulate cross-protection against multiple influenza subtypes are highly sought. Recent evidence suggests that adjuvants such as PCEP that promote Th1-type T cell and Th2-type T cell immune responses and broad-spectrum immune responses may confer cross-protection against heterologous influenza strains. In this study, we evaluated whether the immunogenic and protective potential of PCEP-adjuvanted inactivated swine influenza virus H1N1 vaccine can protect pigs immunized against live H3N2 virus. Piglets were vaccinated via the intradermal route with PCEP-adjuvanted inactivated swine influenza virus (SIV) H1N1 vaccine, boosted at day 21 with the same vaccines then challenged with infectious SIV H3N2 virus at day 35 via the tracheobronchial route. The pigs showed significant anti-H1N1 SIV specific antibody titres and H1N1 SIV neutralizing antibody titres, and these serum titres remained after the challenge with the H3N2 virus. In contrast, vaccination with anti-H1N1 SIV did not trigger anti-H3N2 SIV antibody titres or neutralizing antibody titres and these titres remained low until pigs were challenged with H3N2 SIV. At necropsy (six days after challenge), we collected prescapular lymph nodes and tracheobronchial draining the vaccination sites and challenge site, respectively. ELISPOTs from lymph node cells restimulated ex vivo with inactivated SIV H1N1 showed significant production of IFN-γ in the tracheobronchial cells, but not the prescapular lymph nodes. In contrast, lymph node cells restimulated ex vivo with inactivated SIV H1N1 showed significantly higher IL-13 and IL-17A in the prescapular lymph nodes draining the vaccination sites relative to unchallenged animals. Lung lesion scores show that intradermal vaccination with H1N1 SIV plus PCEP did not prevent lesions when the animals were challenged with H3N2. These results confirm previous findings that PCEP is effective as a vaccine adjuvant in that it induces strong immune responses and protects against homologous swine influenza H1N1 virus, but the experimental H1N1 vaccine failed to cross-protect against heterologous H3N2 virus.