Nóra Gombkötő

Despite decades of research on irrigation efficiency and water productivity, the integration of market volatility into irrigation decision-support models remains limited. This study presents a decision-support framework to optimise irrigation water allocation by integrating Irrigation Water Productivity (IWP) with economic profitability. While conventional water-productivity indicators focus primarily on physical crop output, our model incorporates fluctuating irrigation costs and market prices to calculate Net Irrigation Profit per cubic metre of irrigation water. The present study aims to address the critical gap between biophysical water use and financial viability by introducing a hydro-economic profitability framework. In contrast to static models, our approach integrates deterministic market-volatility scenarios with primary farm-level data, thereby enabling the quantification of the specific thresholds at which irrigation transitions from a yield-enhancing practice to an economically challenging investment. The irrigation-cost component of the framework was calibrated using primary data collected from 12 commercial farms in Western Transdanubia (2022–2024). The results show that maize exhibited the highest IWP (2.690 kg m⁻³) among the analysed crops and the highest NIP in 2022 (+ 0.299 EUR m⁻³). However, irrigation was not profitable in 2024 primarily due to lower crop prices. Wheat irrigation was economically non-viable in both benchmark years, whereas soybean shifted from a positive NIP in 2022 (+ 0.072 EUR m⁻³) to a negative NIP in 2024 (− 0.054 EUR m⁻³). Sensitivity analysis demonstrated the response of the framework to realistic market-volatility scenarios. The proposed tool facilitates the prioritisation of irrigation based on direct economic efficiency, thereby providing a scalable solution for water-scarce agricultural regions. To reach the break-even point in 2024, the maize market price would need to increase by approximately 28.5%, from 0.165 to 0.212 EUR kg⁻¹, or the irrigation cost would need to decrease from 0.375 to approximately 0.248 EUR m⁻³. For soybean, the market price would need to increase by approximately 9.1%, from 0.429 to 0.468 EUR kg⁻¹, to reach the break-even threshold under 2024 conditions.

Introduction: In response to the growing demand for practical and robust sustainability assessment tools, this study introduces a new method for evaluating agricultural sustainability at the farm level. The tool relies on indicators covering environmental, economic, and mixed dimensions of sustainability. The mixed dimension integrates environmental, economic, and social indicators. Methods: Indicators were selected based on the literature and empirical data from Hungarian farms. From 61 initial indicators, three groups were formed through factor analysis and clustering. Results: The analysis revealed that environmental and economic factors contribute almost equally to sustainability scores, whereas the mixed dimension has a comparatively smaller impact. This suggests that immediate sustainability improvements might need to prioritize environmental and economic factors. The assessment tool allows the calculation of a complex agricultural sustainability index, which has been validated through case studies on Hungarian farms. Discussion: This study is presented as a methodological pilot project to develop and test a farm-level sustainability assessment tool for agricultural enterprises. The results highlight the practical applicability of the tool for farmers and policymakers, as it offers a transparent, easy-to-use method for identifying sustainability strengths and weaknesses at the enterprise level. Limitations include a small, region-specific sample, which may restrict broader applicability. Additionally, there are challenges in integrating multidimensional indicators. Future research should focus on expanding the dataset, refining indicator weighting, and testing the tool’s applicability in a broader agricultural context. This enhances the robustness and guides stakeholders in sustainable agricultural development.

The aim of the study is to examine the regional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its individual waves on foreign trade in food and agro-based products in the world’s largest trading countries. The study was based on the statistical database of the International Trade Centre (ITC). In addition to the basic analysis, use was made of the auto- correlation method to detect special relationships between foreign food trade of different countries. The results show that the pandemic has had the greatest impact on agricultural and food trade in the United States, but it has spilled over to other countries as well, especially its two major trading partners, the European Union and China. Food trade stagnated in the initial period of the pandemic, but later recovered relatively well. The six examined regions can be divided into three groups based on the typical features of their autocorrelation.

Compliance with green requirements is becoming increasingly important in assessing the performance of companies. The new CSRD legislation requires a wider range of companies to produce sustainability reports and their content is influenced by the EU's taxonomy regulation setting out the framework for sustainable finance. The disclosure of information affects the perception of companies' sustainability performance, which will affect their access to financial resources and development opportunities. The main question is, both in theory and in practice, how companies can comply with the legislation in the future. It is essential for the competitiveness of Hungary's food industry to keep pace with future environmental sustainability requirements, so we examined the sustainability reporting practices of the sector's key companies in terms of their contribution to the environmental objectives set out in the taxonomy regulation. The research fits well with the EU's overall green transition regulatory procedure and our study is gap-filling at macro-regional and sectoral levels. The sustainability reports were assessed by content analysis using a scoring method. The results show that the sustainability reporting practices of food processing companies in Hungary differ significantly. Furthermore, greater emphasis must be placed on reporting and the credibility of the reports to meet future expectations. Foreign-owned companies and companies with more than 500 employees attribute greater importance to reporting. In the food processing sector, the disclosure of information and data under the taxonomy objectives of mitigation of climate change, sustainable use of water and marine resources, and transition to a circular economy was most common.

By the onset of the 21st century, online presence had become prevalent in higher education, with the COVID-19 pandemic further accelerating this trend. However, the success of online education and its assessment by students can differ significantly from region to region and according to the field of study. This can be influenced by students’ habits of using IT devices, but it can also occur the other way around. In this research, experiences related to online education were examined in the fields of Informatics, Agriculture and Pharmacy education at two higher-education institutions in Slovakia and one in Hungary, considering the environmental and social sustainability implications. In the study, in addition to simple statistical methods, a cross-tabulation analysis was carried out using Cramer’s V method. The results have shown that the students of the investigated institutions confidently navigate the online world; they are conscious users of IT tools without being addicted. A total of 74% of students in Mosonmagyaróvár believe they possess sufficient information about the risks associated with computers, mobile phones, and the Internet, whereas only 34% of students in Košice share the same sentiment. The reason for the differences between these characteristics can be attributed to the specialties of the different majors, and not to those arising from regional differences, raising important questions about the ecological sustainability of online education practices. A relatively great consistency can be observed in the assessment of online learning among students from the three institutions, with approximately 85% expressing overall satisfaction with the online learning experience. The easier availability of study materials and savings on travel are mentioned as advantages, contributing to economic sustainability. However, separation from their mates and the lack of practical training may be regarded as a disadvantage for them, as they seem to have a preference for face-to-face training. Overall, it may be concluded that purely online training in the fields of Informatics, Agriculture, and Pharmacy training is not feasible for the time being, necessitating a balanced and sustainable approach for the future.

Globalisation and the export- import activities of foods contribute the expansion of invasive species in the world (Tait. et al., 2021). One of these species is the spotted wing drosophila (SWD) (Drosophila suzukii, Matsumara), which is a major threat to berries. Since it has a wide range of host plants and since it is an insect with several generations and a large population, it can cause enormous damage to berries (Wiman et al., 2016, Tait et al., 2021). Our experience shows that in Hungary it causes the most damage to blackberries, but it is also an increasingly common pest in our vineyards. Successful integrated pest management (IPM) can only be implemented by understanding the insect's biological cycle and ecological requirements. It is of paramount importance to strengthen the plants' defence system, avoiding diseases that give the green light to various pest organisms. By spraying salicylic acid, which induces resistance, the berry skin thickness can be increased in the case of thinskinned grape varieties susceptible to rot (e.g., Rhine Riesling), thereby the insect damage rate can be reduced (Németh et al., 2020). The looser cluster structure by the treatments is also beneficial in preventing spread of the pest. In the current work, we present the results and experiences of the study series for the years 2021-2023.

The European Union has a significant role in international trade but this is largely in the area of industrial goods. However, in the case of some agricultural commodities the EU applies tariffs, bans, or different restrictive measures; it manages foreign trade in agricultural goods with many countries all over the world. On the other hand the member states do not contribute to the total trade of the EU to the same extent. In this study, a comparative analysis was performed in relation to the member states by means of data of Eurostat and Faostat. First, a multivariable correlation analysis was carried out in order to find the interrelation between the trade features of each country. In the second part of the study, a cluster analysis was carried out with almost the same component as in the foregoing, also in terms of the EU member states. It can be ascertained that the date of EU accession of a Member State as well as getting EU agricultural subsidies do not affect the agricultural foreign trade of the member states. Countries with significant agricultural production also export food commodities in larger quantities. Countries that have significant exports extra-EU also have larger imports in the case of both basic commodities and prepared food as well. As a result of the cluster analysis, it can be stated that the member states can be divided into specific groups according to the three examined aspects (food trade features, exports of commodities, imports of commodities). The following typical country groups can be divided as follows: non-trade countries, countries with larger trade extra-EU, agri-food exporter and importer countries, non-agri-food exporter and importer countries, primary commodity exporters and importers, and last but not least processed food exporters and importers as well. JEL Classification: F10

There is a significant increase in food prices all over the world. Rate of annual increases in prices of all kinds of food is more than 100 percent. However, this can lead to long-term food crisis. The research aims to find out the factors that contribute to a large increase in food prices, as well as to predict the likely consequences of food price increases. Then potential solutions related to specific problems should be highlighted. In this study several factors were determined, which were contributed to central (global food price increase) and general problems. These problems were separated by cause and consequences, they were structured and ordered hierarchically. Through outline the problems it can be improved that in global market of foods both demand and supply are influenced by many factors. The most important factors affected demand are: increase of population and urban population all over the world and increase of income level and internal migration in emerging countries. Supply is influenced by the following factors: a decrease in the yield of agricultural crops, low level of productivity in agricultural sector, as well as reduction in food crops production area because of unfavourable weather and increased production of biofuels. Most of general and specific factors, which affect food price increase, are related to each other causally but there are also separate factors. The most effective solution to the problem is increasing of agricultural productivity at the same time investments into agricultural researches and rural infrastructure.

Farmers’ market may solve many problems concerning long-distance transport. In this sales form, physical distance is reduced between the producer and the consumer, furthermore personal relationships and trust can be also established between these two actors. In addition, it provides small producers with the opportunity for producing and selling local, high-quality foods, and consumers are able to enjoy delicious, mostly local organic food products. Farmers’ market is an increasingly popular sales channel in Hungary. While in 2010 there were 100, in 2014 there were around 200 farmers’ markets, in 2017 their number increased to more than 250. The National Rural Development Program also encourages the sale of local products in this form. In this paper, a questionnaire survey was conducted with producers in the largest farmers' markets of the Transdanubian Region in Hungary, which was used to analyse the farmers’ market features of the region.

Nowadays, production of goods increases hugely all over the world, resulting an enormous increasing in international trade. Trade in industrial goods grows at a large rate due to trade liberalization, while agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors all over the world. However, barriers of agri-food trade were reduced or eliminated; there are still many obstacles to the totally free trade of agricultural products (e.g. restrictions, safeguards, bans, limitations, etc), especially in the European Union. Besides the WTO’s liberalization pressure and its multilateral negotiations, there are a lot of countries that have signed bilateral agreements. In this study, it was examined, what kind of bilateral agreements were entered into force by the EU and how was international agri-food trade influenced by these bilateral agreements as well as by restrict measures. For this, secondary data were analyzed by different statistical methods and the effect of trade measures was characterized by using this results. From the results it can be concluded that EU has preferred different agreements with the various country groups as well as EU has applied different kind of agreements in different eras. The EU’s average growth rate of food trade and average share of food trade is highly variable by partner countries. Bilateral agreements have not always caused trade growth between the two partner regions. The EU’s restrict measurements effect the EU’s foreign trade, because these restrictions are applied to meat products and these commodities are imported the less in the EU.