Alicia Graciela Cid

Background/Objectives: Infectious diseases remain a major burden on global public health, exacerbated by the serious threat of antimicrobial resistance and the limitations of conventional pharmaceutical formulations. This narrative review aims to analyze the current state of 3D printing technology in the development of drug delivery systems tailored to the treatment of infectious diseases, analyzing the main manufacturing techniques, the polymers used and the challenges associated with the design of customized or combined dosage forms, emphasizing its capabilities across various routes of administration, current challenges, and potential clinical prospects. Methods: A structured literature search was conducted in ScienceDirect, PubMed and Wiley for research articles published between 2020 and May 2026 using the terms “antibiotic” AND “3D printing” AND “drug delivery.” Retrieved articles were selected, filtered, and categorized according to their route of administration. Results: Additive manufacturing enables the tailoring of dosage form geometry, drug loading and release kinetics, promoting the development of formulations for personalized treatments of infectious diseases. The most frequently used technique in the analyzed studies was semi-solid extrusion, probably due to its compatibility with various biomaterials and thermolabile active pharmaceutical ingredients. Topical applications represent the most studied area in the retrieved results of the search, integrating multifunctional properties such as stimuli response and wound healing. 3D printing has also expanded delivery platforms for vaginal, ocular, and oral routes, although the evidence for these routes remains largely preclinical. Conclusions: The studies analyzed suggest that pharmaceutical 3D printing is evolving from a manufacturing tool for personalized dosage forms to an advanced platform for designing multifunctional therapeutic systems. Overcoming current regulatory, clinical validation, and manufacturing challenges will be crucial for translating these innovations into clinical practice for the treatment of infectious diseases.

Background/Objectives: Infectious diseases remain a major burden on global public health, exacerbated by the serious threat of antimicrobial resistance and the limitations of conventional pharmaceutical formulations. This review aims to analyze the current state of 3D printing technology in the development of drug delivery systems tailored to the treatment of infectious diseases, emphasizing its capabilities across various routes of administration, current challenges, and potential clinical prospects. Methods: A literature search was conducted in ScienceDirect for research articles published between 2020 and May 2026 using the terms “antibiotic” AND “3D printing” AND “drug delivery.” Retrieved articles were selected, filtered, and categorized according to their route of administration. Results: Additive manufacturing allows for precise control of dosage, geometry, and release kinetics, facilitating personalized treatments for infectious diseases. Semi-solid extrusion has become the dominant technique due to its compatibility with various biomaterials and thermolabile active pharmaceutical ingredients. Topical applications represent the most advanced area, integrating multifunctional properties such as stimuli response and wound healing. Furthermore, 3D printing has demonstrated significant efficacy in expanding delivery platforms for vaginal, ocular, and oral routes. Conclusions: Pharmaceutical 3D printing is evolving from a manufacturing tool for personalized dosage forms to an advanced platform for designing multifunctional therapeutic systems. Overcoming current regulatory, clinical validation, and manufacturing challenges will be crucial to translating these innovations into routine clinical practice to combat infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance.

Background/Objectives: Lipid-based nanocarriers have emerged as promising systems for improving the delivery of poorly soluble drugs by enhancing stability, bioavailability, and controlled release. This work aimed to formulate solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) containing ciprofloxacin (CIP) using solvent-free procedures. Methods: The systems were extensively characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to study the nanoparticles in the solid state. Furthermore, in vitro drug release was evaluated, and mathematical modeling was applied to analyze the resulting release kinetics. Additionally, storage stability was assessed at 4 °C and 25 °C over a period of 8 months. Results: The results indicated that SLN with an average size of ~50 nm (SLN 50) and NLC with mean diameters of ~25, 50, and 100 nm (NLC 25, NLC 50 and NLC 100 respectively) were successfully prepared. DLS measurements showed narrow particle size distributions (PdI ≤ 0.2) and negative zeta potentials ranging from −3.7 to −7.7 mV. Encapsulation efficiencies were remarkably high for most systems, reaching ~98% for SLN 50, NLC 50, and NLC 100, while the smallest formulation (NLC 25) showed a lower efficiency (~80%). Both TEM and AFM confirmed the formation of spherical nanoscale structures consistent with the sizes determined by DLS. Release studies revealed a strong influence of particle size on kinetics: NLC 25 exhibited rapid release (~95% within 30 min), whereas NLC 100 showed a sustained profile ( 0.98), enabling estimation of dissolution efficiency. Conclusions: These findings confirm that lipid-based nanocarriers can be engineered to precisely control CIP release.

Background/Objectives: In vitro dissolution tests are an essential tool in pharmaceutical development, allowing for the analysis of biopharmaceutical properties, understanding release mechanisms, and comparing formulations. The wide variety of mathematical models available for interpreting the profiles obtained creates ambiguity and difficulty in their selection and application. The objective of this work was to develop a decision tree algorithm that, based on the initial observation of the experimental profile, rationally guides the selection of the most appropriate mathematical model, considering their advantages and limitations. Methods: A review of classical and recent dissolution/release models was conducted, highlighting their constraints and parameters of pharmaceutical relevance. Based on this information, a decision tree was designed, integrating observational (curve shape, burst or lag time phenomena), statistical (R², AIC), and interpretability criteria. The algorithm was validated using topical and oral representative systems: hydrogels, polymeric films, modular systems (Dome Matrix), and 3D-printed pills. Results: The decision tree allowed reducing the number of candidate models and guiding the selection toward equations consistent with the observed phenomena. The usefulness of the Lumped–Gonzo model, capable of fitting complete profiles and providing physically meaningful parameters, was highlighted compared to classic models such as Weibull or Korsmeyer–Peppas. The methodology proved to be versatile and applicable to different release mechanisms. Conclusions: The proposed algorithm constitutes a flexible and practical tool that facilitates the rational selection of mathematical models. It does not replace the researcher's judgment, but rather complements it, promoting a more efficient use of mathematical modeling in the development of dosage forms.

Aim: This study focused on evaluating the influence of geometric dimensions on the drug release kinetics of 3D-printed tablets.Materials & methods: An ink based on Gelucire 50/13 was prepared to print ivermectin-loaded tablets. The ink was characterized physicochemically and tablet dissolution tests were carried out.Results: The results confirmed the suitability of the ink for 3D printing at a temperature >46°C. Changes in the crystallinity of ivermectin were observed without chemical interactions with the polymer. 3D printed tablets with varied proportional sizes showed dual behavior in their release profiles, while tablets with only thickness reduction exhibited zero-order kinetics.Conclusion: These findings highlight the versatility of 3D printing to create systems with specific and customized release profiles.

Ciprofloxacin (Cipro) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic used against both Gram (+) and Gram (−) bacteria. Its biological half-life is very short (4–5 h) and its conventional administration forms present a limited absorption efficiency. For this reason, the aim of this work was to study other administration strategies based on topical films. Sodium alginate (SA), a naturally occurring polymer, and a recombinant elastin-like polymer (rELP) produced by advanced genetic engineering techniques were evaluated as potential carrier systems. The films were obtained by the casting technique, adding the Cipro by direct dispersion in the polymer solution using 16.6% w/w rELP or 1.5% w/w SA. The in vitro release assays were performed at 37 °C in physiological solution and with orbital shaking at 90 rpm. Cipro concentration was determined by ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometry at 276 nm. The release profiles were analyzed and adjusted using the Lumped model developed and validated by our research group. Pharmaceutical interest parameters were calculated and compared for both polymer-Cipro systems: the time required to reach 80% of the drug dissolved (t_80%), the dissolution efficiency (DE) and the mean dissolution time (MDT). The SA-Cipro platform released the 80% of the drug in 35 min, while this parameter was 209 min for the rELP-Cipro system. The MDT_80% was 8.9 and 53 min for the SA-Cipro and rELP-Cipro, respectively, while the DE, evaluated at 200 min, was 66.6 and 58.8 for each platform, respectively. These parameter values demonstrate that the rELP films were able to modulate the drug release rate and for the SA ones, release can be considered immediate. Therefore, both systems are promising strategies for the topical application of Cipro.

Albendazole (ABZ) and benznidazole (BZL) are drugs with low solubility used in parasitic infections treatment. In this research, solid dispersion (SD) technology was used to enhance ABZ and BZL performance by increasing their dissolution rate and solubility. SDs were prepared by the fusion method, employing Poloxamer 407 (P407) as carrier to disperse 32 of BZL or 50% w/w of ABZ. Furthermore, physical mixtures (PM) of P407 and either ABZ or BZL were also prepared, and then SDs and PMs were characterized. Dissolution tests of SDs, PMs and commercial formulations (CF) of ABZ and BZL were carried out and dissolution profiles were analyzed with the lumped mathematical model, which allowed parameters of pharmaceutical relevance to be obtained. The results indicated that ABZ SD presented an initial dissolution rate (IDR) 21-fold and 11-fold faster than PM and CF, respectively, while the IDR of BZL SD was 2.5-fold and 4.5-fold faster than PM and CF, respectively. For BZL formulations, the time required to reach 80% dissolution of the drug (t_80%) was 4 (SD), 46 (PM), and 239 min (CF), while the dissolution efficiency (DE) at 30 min was 85 (DS), 71 (MF) and 65% (FC). For ABZ formulations, t_80% was 2 (SD), value not reached (PM) and 40 min (CF), while the DE at 30 min was 85 (SD), 36 (MF) and 65% (CF). The SDs developed notably increased the dissolution rate, in consonance with the values obtained from the pharmaceutical parameters, which could lead to faster absorption and, consequently, increase the bioavailability of these drugs.

Background: Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease and its cutaneous form manifests as ulcers or nodules, generally in exposed parts of the body. This work aimed to develop ivermectin (IVM) ...