Constantinos Kounnamas

Natural resource management and area-based conservation are increasingly recognised as outcomes of complex interactions between ecological conditions and social systems, shaped by local knowledge, governance arrangements, and environmental pressures. The Social-Ecological Systems Framework (SESF), developed by Elinor Ostrom, provides a comprehensive framework to analyse these dynamics; however, most applications remain context-specific, limiting cross-site comparability. This study introduces the Conservation and Human Use Index (CHUI), a standardised diagnostic tool that operationalizes SESF principles for comparative analysis across conservation-important areas. CHUI comprises 134 qualitative questions structured across four equally weighted dimensions: (i) Natural Values and Ecosystem Services, (ii) Threats and Pressures, (iii) Governance, and (iv) Social Perceptions. Using an ordinal 0–3 scale with a “Not Applicable” option, the Index enables consistent, flexible application through both desk-based assessments and participatory processes. It generates aggregate and disaggregated outputs that help identify pressure hotspots, governance gaps, and conservation-use synergies. CHUI’s primary innovation lies in translating SESF into a pragmatic and participatory instrument that supports real-world decision-making. Rather than replacing detailed ecological or socio-economic assessments, it functions as a collaborative diagnostic compass to guide targeted investigation and intervention. Its participatory design fosters shared learning, transparency, and co-production of context-specific management pathways, supporting adaptive stewardship and community empowerment. Developed within the Horizon Europe PRO-COAST project and tested across ten European coastal case studies, CHUI advances both the operationalization of SESF and the practice of inclusive, adaptive conservation management.

Human threats to biodiversity are prevalent within protected areas (PAs), undermining their effectiveness in halting biodiversity loss. Certain threats tend to co-occur, resulting in amplified cumulative impact through synergistic effects. However, it remains unclear which threats are related the most. We analyzed a dataset of 71 human threats in 18 013 terrestrial PAs of the European Union's Natura 2000 network, using a Joint Species Distribution Modelling approach, to assess the threats' co-occurrence patterns and potential drivers. Overall, threats were more frequently correlated positively than negatively. Threats related to agriculture and urbanization were correlated strongly with most other threats. Approximately 70% of the variance in our model was explained by country-specific factors, indicating the importance of local drivers. Minimizing the negative impact of key threats can likely reduce the impact of related threats. However, more research is needed to understand better the relationships among threats and, importantly, their combined impact on biodiversity.

Monitoring human pressure on biodiversity within protected areas (PAs) remains a challenging task due to the vast number of PAs worldwide (>250,000) and the fact that we lack basic information for most of them. Consequently, researchers are increasingly relying on remote sensing techniques to overcome this challenge. However, remote assessments of human pressure on biodiversity may miss crucial threats, such as hunting and invasive species, which are often best documented through in situ field surveys. Here, we use a unique European Union dataset documenting human threats within 8210 PAs through field surveys to assess the relationship between those threats and three commonly used indices of human pressure that are largely derived using remote‐sensing methods—the Human Footprint and Human Modification indices and the LandScan Global Population Database. We find that the indices are not always related to the threats recorded within PAs through field surveys. The indices seem to best capture threats associated with urbanization, agriculture, and pollution but not necessarily others. Although remote assessments of human pressure on biodiversity are crucial for conservation, researchers and practitioners must be aware of their limitations and must complement such assessments with information collected in the field whenever possible.

Monitoring human pressure on biodiversity within protected areas (PAs) remains a challenging task due to the vast number of PAs worldwide (> 250,000) and the fact that we lack basic information for most of them. Consequently, researchers are increasingly relying on remote sensing techniques to overcome this challenge. However, remote assessments of human pressure on biodiversity may miss crucial threats, such as hunting and invasive species, which are often best documented through in-situ field surveys. Here, we use a unique European Union dataset documenting human threats within 8,210 PAs through field surveys to assess the relationship between those threats and three commonly used indices of human pressure that are largely derived using remote-sensing methods—the Human Footprint and Human Modification indices and the LandScan Global Population Database. We find that the indices are not always related to the threats recorded within PAs through field surveys. The indices seem to best capture threats associated with urbanization, agriculture, and pollution but not necessarily others. Although remote assessments of human pressure on biodiversity are crucial for conservation, researchers and practitioners must be aware of their limitations and must complement such assessments with information collected in the field whenever possible.

Troodos National Forest Park is located in the centre of Troodos mountain range and it is one of the most important natural environments of Cyprus. It has been included to the Natura 2000 network of the Island due to its important natural ecosystems and its great biodiversity. Based on the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES 5.1), 36 ecosystem services have been identified in the area. The majority of ecosystem services are concentrated at the Troodos peak and the nearby areas. The same pattern applies for the Cultural Services. Provisioning and Regulation-Maintenance services are concentrated at the centre and western part of the site. The site’s habitat types were mapped and their distribution in the area is presented in respective maps. Carbon stored in plants was 622,705 tonnes in total (73.18 t C per ha), calculated as per habitat type (according to Directive 92/43/EEC - Habitats Directive) and as per TESSA habitat classification. Seven TESSA and 10 Annex I habitat types were identified. The largest part of the site is dominated by Evergreen Broadleaf Forests (7799 ha), followed by Mixed Forests (624 ha) and Deciduous Broadleaf Forests (60 ha). The carbon stock included in AGB (Above Ground Biomass), BGB (Below Ground Biomass), Dead Wood & Litter and SOM (Soil Organic Matter) was evaluated for each habitat type. The annual carbon biomass removal (roundwood and fuelwood) is 80.82 t C y^-1 (0.009 t C y^-1 per ha), while the carbon sequestered in Troodos National Forest Park is 11,880.33 t CO₂ eq y^-1 (0.38 t C y^-1 per ha). The information produced serves as a useful tool to competent authorities for raising awareness on the importance of ecosystem services and increase the public’s support in the area’s conservation.