Erfan Zaker

Leishmania RNA viruses (LRVs) have emerged as significant modulators of disease severity, therapeutic response, and clinical outcomes in various forms of leishmaniasis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge surrounding LRV1 and LRV2, focusing on their taxonomy, molecular biology, epidemiological patterns, and pathogenic roles across Leishmania species. LRV1, predominantly infecting New World Leishmania ( Viannia ) species such as L. guyanensis and L. braziliensis , and LRV2, primarily associated with Old World species such as L. major , L. tropica , and L. infantum as viral endosymbionts, have both been associated with increased mucocutaneous dissemination, treatment failure, and disease relapse. Mechanistically, these viruses enhance parasite virulence through immune modulation—particularly via Toll‐like receptor 3 (TLR3)—leading to chronic inflammation and host tissue damage. The presence of LRV has been correlated with unresponsiveness to first‐line treatments such as meglumine antimoniate and amphotericin B, especially in endemic regions. Furthermore, LRV may serve as a prognostic biomarker, and its detection could guide therapeutic decision‐making in high‐risk patients. The review also discusses emerging therapeutic strategies targeting viral components, such as capsid proteins and RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase, as well as vaccine development using recombinant viral antigens. Finally, it emphasizes the urgent need for expanded surveillance, standardized diagnostics, and deeper exploration of host–virus–parasite interactions to better understand the clinical and epidemiological impact of LRV‐positive leishmaniasis.

Background: Variants in the Aristaless‐related homeobox (ARX) gene lead to a variety of phenotypes, with intellectual disability being a steady feature. Other features can include severe epilepsy, spasticity, movement disorders, hydranencephaly, and ambiguous genitalia in males. X‐linked Ohtahara syndrome or Type 1 early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (EIEE1) is a severe early‐onset epileptic encephalopathy with arrested psychomotor development caused by hemizygous mutations in the ARX gene, which encodes a transcription factor in fundamental brain developmental processes.Methods: We presented a case report of a 2‐year‐old boy who exhibited symptoms such as microcephaly, seizures, and severe multifocal epileptic abnormalities, and genetic techniques such as autozygosity mapping, Sanger sequencing, and whole‐exome sequencing.Results: We confirmed that the patient had the NM_139058.3:c.84C>A; p.(Cys28Ter) mutation in the ARX gene.Conclusion: The patient with EIEE1 had physical symptoms and hypsarrhythmia on electroencephalogram. Genetic testing identified a causative mutation in the ARX gene, emphasizing the role of genetic testing in EIEE diagnosis.

The aims of this study are to investigate the effect of acrylamide on the level of proinflammatory cytokines in the blood of acrylamide-treated rats and to find the modulatory impact of probiotics on those cytokines. Thirty-two rats were divided into four groups: rats which received 20mg acrylamide, acrylamide with 20mg probiotics, acrylamide with 200mg probiotics, and standard water and food (groups 14, respectively). The serum levels of cytokines were measured on days 0, 15, and 30. Group 1 showed an increased serum level of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α after 15 days, and they decreased in day 30. Serum IL-6 level was significantly decreased on days 15 and 30 in rats in group 2 compared to the controls. TNF-α and IL-1β levels were not statistically different after treated with probiotics. The exposure of rats to acrylamide led to increased systemic inflammation as evidenced by higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines, and probiotics can modulate this inflammation.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19) infections are the three epidemiological diseases caused by the Coronaviridae family. Perceiving the immune responses in these infections and the escape of viruses could help us design drugs and vaccines for confronting these infections. This review investigates the innate and adaptive immune responses reported in the infections of the three coronaviruses SARS, MERS, and COVID‐19. Moreover, the present study can trigger researchers to design and develop new vaccines and drugs based on immune system responses. In conclusion, due to the need for an effective and efficient immune stimulation against coronavirus, a combination of several strategies seems necessary for developing the vaccine.