Jessica Pan

This paper studies how institutional design shapes gender differences in high-stakes examinations. We exploit a college entrance exam reform that introduced withinyear retake opportunities and greater flexibility in subject choice, and combine it with student-level data linking multiple exam attempts. We show that reducing the oneshot nature of high-stakes exams improves female performance relative to males, with effects concentrated in affected subjects. The gains arise from two mechanisms: lower exam pressure and endogenous subject sorting, as female students reallocate toward comparative-advantage subjects. These results suggest that high-stakes exams do not simply measure ability but actively shape how ability is expressed and how inequality emerges.

This chapter examines the evolution of holistic admissions in Singapore, outlining the motivations and rationale behind the admissions policies adopted by the nation's universities across three key periods. Each period reflects a distinct admissions model: a focus on academic performance until the early 2000s, the introduction and adoption of the Discretionary Admissions Scheme (DAS) in the late 2000s, and the transition to the Aptitude-Based Admissions (ABA) approach in the late 2010s. The chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of these policies, exploring their formulation and the perspectives of various stakeholders, including parliamentarians, university administrators, students, and parents. We discuss the implications of holistic admissions on higher education in Singapore broadly, and present findings from previous research on its impact on the diversity of the student body and the outcomes of students admitted through these policies. The chapter also highlights potential challenges arising from the shift toward holistic admissions.

This chapter traces the evolution of the study of gender in the labor market, focusing on how academic thinking on this topic has evolved alongside real world developments in gender inequality from the 1980s to the present. We present a simple model of female labor supply to illustrate how various forces discussed in the literature (e.g., productivity differentials, unequal gender roles, wage markdowns) affect the gender earnings gap. A major development in the literature is a clearer distinction between intrinsic differences in preferences and skills between men and women versus differential constraints in driving gender gaps. We discuss insights from research on the relative importance of these explanations, and the implications for economic efficiency. We highlight that much of the literature today emphasizes the relevance of gendered constraints, where women and men typically face differential trade-offs between family and career, with implications for job sorting, job search, and earnings. These constraints have their roots in gender roles within the household that are shaped by wider societal norms. We review recent research that establishes the relevance of identity and norms for understanding gender inequalities in the labor market, both on the supply-side and on the demand-side, as well as what drives the formation and evolution of these norms. Finally, we conclude with suggestions for future research.

This chapter traces the evolution of the study of gender in the labor market, focusing on how academic thinking on this topic has evolved alongside real world developments in gender inequality from the 1980s to the present. We present a simple model of female labor supply to illustrate how various forces discussed in the literature (e.g., productivity differentials, unequal gender roles, wage markdowns) affect the gender earnings gap. A major development in the literature is a clearer distinction between intrinsic differences in preferences and skills between men and women versus differential constraints in driving gender gaps. We discuss insights from research on the relative importance of these explanations, and the implications for economic efficiency. We highlight that much of the literature today emphasizes the relevance of gendered constraints, where women and men typically face differential trade-offs between family and career, with implications for job sorting, job search, and earnings. These constraints have their roots in gender roles within the household that are shaped by wider societal norms. We review recent research that establishes the relevance of identity and norms for understanding gender inequalities in the labor market, both on the supply-side and on the demand-side, as well as what drives the formation and evolution of these norms. Finally, we conclude with suggestions for future research.Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.

We examine the differential effects of automation on the labor market and educational outcomes of women relative to men over the past four decades. Although women were disproportionately employed in occupations with a high risk of automation in 1980, they were more likely to shift to high-skill, high-wage occupations than men in over time. We provide a causal link by exploiting variation in local labor market exposure to automation attributable to historical differences in local industry structure. For a given change in the exposure to automation across commuting zones, women were more likely than men to shift out of routine task-intensive occupations to high-skill, high wage occupations over the subsequent decade. The net effect is that initially routine-intensive local labor markets experienced greater occupational gender integration. College attainment among younger workers, particularly women, also rose significantly more in areas more exposed to automation. We propose a model of occupational choice with endogenous skill investments, where social skills and routine tasks are q-complements, and women have a comparative advantage in social skills, to explain the observed patterns. Supporting the model mechanisms, areas with greater exposure to automation experienced a greater movement of women into occupations with high social skill (and high cognitive) requirements than men. Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.

We examine the differential effects of automation on the labor market and educational outcomes of women relative to men over the past four decades. Although women were disproportionately employed in occupations with a high risk of automation in 1980, they were more likely to shift to high-skill, high-wage occupations than men in over time. We provide a causal link by exploiting variation in local labor market exposure to automation attributable to historical differences in local industry structure. For a given change in the exposure to automation across commuting zones, women were more likely than men to shift out of routine task-intensive occupations to high-skill, high wage occupations over the subsequent decade. The net effect is that initially routine-intensive local labor markets experienced greater occupational gender integration. College attainment among younger workers, particularly women, also rose signicantly more in areas more exposed to automation. We propose a model of occupational choice with endogenous skill investments, where social skills and routine tasks are q-complements, and women have a comparative advantage in social skills, to explain the observed patterns. Supporting the model mechanisms, areas with greater exposure to automation experienced a greater movement of women into occupations with high social skill (and high cognitive) requirements than men.

Background: Past research found gaps in fertility knowledgeability among young adults. The provision of fertility information can reduce gaps in knowledgeability. We investigate whether the provision of fertility and fertility policies information affect university students’ family formation and career expectations. Methods: A three-armed randomized controlled trial was conducted online in Singapore between September and October 2021. A total of 1000 undergraduate students were recruited through campus advertisements to complete a 30- to 45-minute online survey, which randomly exposed participants to one of three informational brochures on age-related fertility decline (ARF group), fertility policies (FP group), or diabetes (control group). Participants answered questions on family formation and career expectations both prior to and after the provision of information. Analysis of covariance was used to assess the effects of the information intervention. Results: Exposure to the ARF information resulted in significant reductions in the ideal age at first childbirth, significant increases in the expected probability of marriage before age 30, and (among female participants) significant increases in the expected likelihood of undergoing social egg-freezing. No difference existed in child-number ideals, educational aspirations, and income expectations between groups after exposure. No difference existed between the FP group and the control group after exposure in any of the outcomes of interest. Conclusions: Information on age-related fertility decline brought forward university students’ expected timing of childbearing and marriage without reducing their educational and career expectations. The provision of fertility information at early ages, such as during university, can help correct widespread inaccurate beliefs about fertility and promote realistic family formation planning without adversely affecting educational and career goals.

We examine the extent and channels through which reported sexism affects American women. Using a sample of internal migrants and an IV approach, we show that higher prevailing sexism where a woman currently resides adversely affects her labor market outcomes relative to men, increases marriage, and reduces childbearing age. We attempt to disentangle the roles of discrimination and norms by comparing the effects of male vs. female sexism and various percentiles of the sexism distribution. Overall, the findings are consistent with the importance of prejudice-based discrimination for labor market gaps, and social norms for women’s non-labor market outcomes.