Amy L. Kristof-Brown

This entry reviews the literature on Person-Environment (PE) Fit theories, including early work on employee stress and strain, and vocational interest inventories. Four types of PE fit are included: Person-Vocation, Person-Job, Person-Organization, and Person-Group fit. Various measurement approaches, including direct subjective measures, interactions, difference scores and polynomial regression, are presented. The strengths and weaknesses of each approach are reviewed, with guidance on when particular approaches might be preferred. Meta-analytic results for each type of fit indicate the strength of relationships between each type of fit and work outcomes, in addition to conclusions on the functional form of fit relationships. Implications for managers are discussed.

The article presents a personal historical review of the person‐organization fit (PO) literature by Amy Kristof‐Brown, Benjamin Schneider and Rong Su. We present six conundrums and research evidence about each that we've encountered while studying fit during our careers: (1) What exactly is PO fit?—the term can be narrowly or broadly defined, but must be distinguished from other forms of Person‐Environment (PE) fit; (2) What is the best way to measure PO fit?—there are a variety of ways, each with strengths and liabilities and the measure of P and O can vary across a variety of attributes; (3) At what level of analysis is PO fit?—although conceptually cross‐level, it has been studied most frequently as an individual‐level variable; (4) To what extent does PO fit actually matter?—quite a bit, especially with regard to individual attitudes and turnover, but there are many caveats including measures and national culture; (5) Is PO fit always desirable?—for individuals generally yes, but there can be benefits of misfit; for organizations the answer is still unknown, particularly with regard to diversity; and (6) What are the implications of PO fit change over time?—it is clear that people engage in purposeful activity toward establishing fit in their lives, and purposeful organizational tactics toward accomplishing productive fit is recommended. Addressing these conundrums, we provide thoughts on future directions for research on PO fit and practical implications for managers who want to maximize the benefits of PO fit.

Research has established that person–group (PG) fit, defined as the interpersonal compatibility between individuals and members of their immediate work groups, leads to well-being and success of those who work in teams. Much less known is what influences the levels of and changes in both task- and social-based PG fit perceptions. In this dissertation, I integrate social network research with person-environment (PE) fit literature to propose that a) employee centrality in team advice network is an antecedent to task-based PG fit and centrality in team friendship network is an antecedent to social-based PG fit; b) task-based PG fit prompts team members to change their advice-seeking networks by increasing tie creation in teams and by decreasing tie retention in teams and tie creation out of teams, and social-based PG fit prompts team members to change their friendship networks by increasing tie retention in teams and by decreasing tie creation in and out of teams; c) network changing actions impact subsequent PG fit perceptions; and d) PG fit and changes in PG fit impact distal outcomes including job attitudes and performance in teams. A longitudinal study with employees working in teams was conducted to test my model. Data were analyzed with the Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analysis (SIENA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). Results provided some support to fit impacting network changes but little support for networks influencing fit perceptions.

Person-Group (PG) fit is defined as the perceived compatibility between an individual and his or her workgroup, reflecting various social- and task-related elements of group work (Li, Kristof-Brown, & Nielsen, 2019). Although Yu’s (2013) theoretical motivation model of fit suggests that individuals are motivated and capable of changing and managing their PG fit perceptions, there is limited research on the specific actions that individuals take to manage their fit perceptions. Rather, most of the research in fit is concentrated on the positive outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, commitment, performance) associated with fit (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005) and portrays individuals as passive recipients of their fit perceptions. The purpose of this study is to extend Yu’s (2013) model to demonstrate that individuals are active agents who seek to maintain high levels of PG fit and alter low levels of PG fit. To understand how individuals manage PG fit, I adopt the perspective that fit perceptions are, in part, socially constructed, such that groupmates’ actions can make individuals believe that they are more/less of a fit (Follmer, Talbot, Kristof-Brown, Astrove, & Billsberry, 2018). Thus, individuals are triggered to use impression management (IM) tactics to create, maintain, alter, control, and protect the images that others form of them (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). However, with the myriad of IM tactics, it is unclear what type of PG fit perceptions will trigger which specific IM tactics. This dissertation develops and tests a model that situates IM tactic usage based on what type of PG fit (e.g., social vs. task-based PG fit) is being pursued and what level of PG fit (higher vs. lower) the individual is currently perceiving. To facilitate the connection between PG fit and IM tactics, I also develop a typology that classifies commonly used IM tactics for explaining the situations that will influence the selection of specific tactics. Finally, I explore the psychological and emotional aftermath of engaging in IM tactics by examining which specific IM tactics are more likely to promote or harm: 1-individuals’ perception of PG fit, 2-individuals’ perception how groupmates perceive their PG fit, and 3-groupmates’ perception of the focal individuals’ PG fit.I tested this model with a multisource, three waved time-lagged field survey study across a two-month period. I collected data in two samples: university staff employees who work in group settings and student groups in a business consulting class. Using structural equation modeling and latent change scores, I found that individuals are not passive respondents of their PG fit perceptions. Rather, they are active agents who seek to maintain higher levels of fit and alter lower levels of fit using IM tactics. Yet, the likelihood of using certain tactics for individuals with higher levels of fit differed from the tactics used by individuals with lower levels of fit. Some tactics were associated with improvements in fit, others were not, and a few were associated with reductions in fit. Generally, individuals who began with higher levels of perceived PG fit engaged in IM tactics that were later associated with improved fit. In contrast, individuals who had lower levels of perceived PG fit (namely social-based PG fit) engaged in IM tactics that were later shown to be associated with reductions in fit. These results suggest that individuals with high levels of fit tend to choose the “correct” IM tactics to maintain and improve their fit to an even higher degree, but the misfits tend to choose tactics that damage their fit even further. This highlights the importance of understanding that even though individuals are active agents who seek to manage their perceived fit, the specific actions they engage in to do so are complex and not always appropriate. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as future research directions, are discussed.

Person-Environment (PE) Fit has been a subject of research interest for over 100 years, and although much is know about the consequences PE fit and the types of PE fit, the actions that people take in pursuit of this desirable condition are less well understood. This dissertation develops and tests a model that explains how personality traits influence individuals' choice of coping mechanisms used in pursuit of PE Fit and their ability to use them effectively. Achievement and anxiety motivations influence the choice of coping mechanisms used in pursuit of fit. The efficacy of these coping mechanisms to change the level of PE fit is determined by individuals' ability to respond to feedback from the environment, indicated by narcissism. I also explore the influence of aspects of change in the environment that drive individuals to cope with uncertainty during times of change. Finally, the level of fit achieved and the changes in fit made over time influence individuals' well-being and organizational commitment. I test this model using a pilot study sample of student teams assessed over the course of 5 time periods and a field study sample of working adults assess over the course of 4 time periods. I analyzed this data using Regression, Structural Equation Modeling, Random Coefficient Modeling, and Latent Growth Modeling.

Returning to work after retiring, called bridge employment, is rapidly becoming a common phenomenon in the work world. Despite its increasing prevalence, relatively little is known about the outcomes and processes. One proposed explanation of the relationship between bridge employment and outcomes such as health and life satisfaction is the role of identity-related changes. There are many identity related losses (e.g., loss of status) and transitions (e.g., no longer a full-time employee, no longer a supervisor) inherent in bridge employment. However, no studies have directly considered how identities are constructed to respond to these changes. Using a qualitative, grounded theory approach in which 46 individuals participated in semi-structured interviews, this dissertation seeks to answer the question of “How do individuals come to define who they are during the identity-related losses and liminality experienced during bridge employment?” These results expand existing theory to explain how bridge employment identities are constructed through an iterative process of reconciling preretirement career identities, retirement identities, and bridge employment identities. Specifically, identity threats, often spurred by losses of work roles, relationships, and health related to retiring, were successfully eliminated through substituting the motive for an alternative motive or redefining the motive. Bridge employment was also a time for motives such as self-actualization, reinvention, and generativity. Successful satisfaction of identity motives drove participants to internalize the bridge employment identities. Moreover non-work identities, such as being a volunteer or grandparent, became more important and fulfilled identity motives, even though they were generally in conflict with bridge employment identities and took time away from it. Moreover, participants reported that non-work activities were able to fulfill identity motives. In proving important to one’s identity, non-work identities became more central to one’s identity. Finally, the preretirement career identity enhanced the bridge employment identity and was sometimes changed itself through the iterative nature of the identity construction process. This research enriches our understanding of identity construction during bridge employment as well as suggests practical ways to improve the experience of working after retirement.

My dissertation challenges the dominant situational theory developed by Deutsch (1949) that conceptualizes cooperation and competition as situational factors equally shape all team members’ behaviors. Based on interdependence theory and social network techniques, I offer a configural theory that accounts for the complex, nonlinear patterns of within team cooperation and competition. Acknowledging the tension between team setting and conventional competition, I argue that within team competition is a restrained form of competition as its participants are bonded together by the team membership. Instead of competing for limited prizes or ranks that place individuals against each other, in typical team settings, team members compete for within team status. It has three dimensions, including demonstrating superiority over each team member on competence, participation and connection. I also argue that within team cooperation has three dimensions – sharing, helping and voicing that are directed towards each team member. I developed and validated social network-based measures of within team cooperation and competition based on a student sample in Study 1. The theoretical factor structure was supported. I then tested the overall research model in a field sample in Study 2. Utilizing quadratic assignment procedures, I found that characteristics of each dyad, including dependence, similarity and liking, are able to influence the cooperative behaviors within the dyad. However, why within team competition is differentiated was less consistent with what I expected. The overall pattern of within team cooperation and competition, captured by three network indices, density (i.e., overall connectedness), centralization (i.e., tie distribution), and subgrouping (i.e., disconnection), did not predict team performance. Future research directions are discussed.

The social context has long been recognized as an influence on individual behavior, and research is increasingly recognizing the ways in which social contexts at work play a role in employee performance. In this dissertation, I apply social comparison theory to better understand an understudied aspect of social context: the performance of other people at work. Specifically, I argue that interactions with higher-performing colleagues and lower-performing colleagues provide the referents against which employees compare themselves to evaluate their own performance. These social comparisons are the basis upon which individuals construct an internal norm for performance, influencing their own motivation and performance. I posit that upward comparisons (to better performers) raise normative expectations of performance while downward comparisons (to worse performers) lower normative expectations for performance. I further test whether the relationships between upward and downward comparisons and motivation are moderated by goal orientation, a disposition that describes individuals’ propensity to set different kinds of goals in achievement situations. I examine my hypotheses in two studies: students in and introductory management course and corporate staff in a mid-size food processing company.

Teams research has traditionally treated teams as static entities while paying limited attention to the dynamics introduced by changes in team membership. Furthermore, the few studies that have examined the effects of team membership change have focused on the effects of membership change at a single point in time without considering the potential effects on team performance trajectories over time. In an effort to extend this research and understand how teams respond over time to changes in team membership, this dissertation integrates Team Adaptation Theory with Collective Turnover Theory and proposes a model in which three characteristics of membership change events (quantity of team members changed, status of team members changed, and shared experience of unchanged, continuing team members) influence immediate team performance and serve as signals for post-change team adaptation. Hypotheses were tested using a sample of 253 primary care medical teams in a large U.S. healthcare system. Results showed that membership change events were immediately disruptive to primary care Continuity outcomes, but not to Access or Coordination outcomes. Counter to hypotheses, these immediate disruptions were larger when changes involved members who occupied lower-status roles within teams. Furthermore, team performance trajectories were lower when unchanged, continuing team members had larger amounts of shared work experience. This study contributes to theory and teams research by identifying shared experience as a moderator of the membership change-team performance relationship and by linking the effects of membership change characteristics to both initial post-change performance and longer-term performance trajectories.