Kuo-Pin Wang

Background: Caffeine mouth rinse (Caf-MR) has been investigated as a non-ingestive strategy that may influence cognitive performance and psychological responses. However, evidence in trained individuals remains limited, and psychological responses have not been comprehensively synthesized. This systematic review evaluated the effects of Caf-MR on cognitive performance and psychological responses in trained individuals. Methods: Six electronic databases were searched through 24 September 2026 for randomized controlled studies comparing Caf-MR with a non-caffeinated placebo or control. Reference lists of relevant reviews and eligible studies were also screened. Owing to heterogeneity in protocols and outcomes, findings were synthesized qualitatively. Results: Ten studies were included; five assessed cognitive outcomes and six psychological responses, with one study contributing to both domains. Cognitive findings were heterogeneous, with improvements observed in selected reaction-time measures and Stroop interference time, as well as fewer errors during a sport-specific cognitive–motor task, while other reaction-time and accuracy outcomes showed no clear benefit. Among psychological studies, only one reported a Caf-MR-specific increase in felt arousal, with no consistent effects on mood, motivation, mental effort, mental fatigue, or enjoyment. Methodological quality ranged from fair to good, and all studies had some concerns regarding overall risk of bias. Conclusions: Overall, despite improvements in selected cognitive outcomes, current evidence remains insufficient to establish consistent cognitive or psychological benefits of Caf-MR in trained individuals. Future research should prioritize assessing blinding effectiveness, comparing Caf-MR protocols under standardized experimental conditions, and using comparable outcome measures to clarify potential differences across tasks and contexts.

Introduction: Successful motor performance may depend on the efficient coordination of cognitive and motor processes during movement preparation. Although previous electroencephalographic studies have linked alpha-band (8–13 Hz) coherence with performance in upper-limb precision tasks, little is known about cortico-cortical communication preceding successful lower-limb actions. Methods: Sixteen skilled football players performed penalty kicks under an individualized task-difficulty condition. EEG coherence was calculated for eight electrode pairs connecting the left and right temporal regions with frontal, central, parietal, and occipital midline sites. Coherence was examined during an early preparation period from −2,000 to −1,000 ms and a late preparation period from −1,000 to 0 ms before kick initiation. Results: Successful kicks showed significantly lower Fz–T7 coherence than unsuccessful kicks across both preparation periods. Successful kicks also exhibited lower Cz–T8 coherence during the late preparation period. Discussion: Lower Fz–T7 coherence may reflect reduced interaction between verbal–analytical processing and motor planning, whereas lower Cz–T8 coherence may indicate reduced coupling between visuospatial processing and motor-control processes immediately before kick initiation. These findings extend previous evidence from upper-limb precision tasks to football penalty kicking and support the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. Successful kicking appears to be characterized by selective and time-dependent reductions in functional coupling rather than a general decrease in cortical connectivity.

Introduction: The goal of this study was to examine the neural activities, which contribute to performance efficiency in the early stages of motor skill learning, such as amateur versus novice. To achieve this goal, electroencephalography (EEG) was employed to compare the differences in EEG power that can be used to assess neural excitability between amateur and novice golfers during a visuomotor task (i.e., golf putting task).Methods: 16 amateurs (9 females, 7 males, mean age = 20.81 ± 1.83; an intermediate skill level with an average handicap of 33 ± 5.68 and 3.81 ± 1.83 years of experience) and 16 novice golfers (9 females, 7 males, mean age = 22.25 ± 1.61; no prior experience in golf or formal training) were asked to perform a golf putting task while their EEG was recorded. During the warm-up session, each participant determined their individual putting distance, targeting a 40–60% success rate. Once established, participants were asked to perform 10 putts per block across 6 blocks in the experimental session.Results: The results of the study indicated that amateur golfers demonstrated: (1) higher Fz Theta power, (2) higher Fz, Pz, T7, T8 Alpha 2 power, (3) higher Mu 2 power, and (4) higher SMR power compared with novices during motor preparation. These findings suggest that amateur golfers exhibited reduced motor programming (as indicated by higher Alpha 2 power at Fz and Mu 2 power), reduced verbal-analytical engagement (higher T7 Alpha 2 power), reduced conscious perception of sensations (higher SMR power), reduced visuospatial processes (higher Alpha 2 power at Pz and T8), and enhanced cognitive control of sustained attention (higher Fz Theta power).Discussion: These findings support the notion that the achievement of psychomotor efficiency involves the selective activation and inhibition of neuromotor processes. The study outcomes not only contribute to a broader understanding of the refinement of neuromotor processes during the transition from novice to amateur, but also specify neuromotor processes that can be categorized within the framework of psychomotor efficiency.

Introduction: Understanding the neuromotor processes underlying successful and unsuccessful performance in lower limb movements, such as football kicking, is essential for athletes. However, further investigation is needed to determine whether lower activation of the prefrontal and central cortices, which are associated with motor programming, such as motor planning and motor control, corresponds to higher degrees of psychomotor performance in a difficult task. To address this issue, this within-subject pilot study aimed to investigate neuromotor processes in skilled football players performing penalty kicks under a difficult condition.Methods: Ten skilled football players were recruited and asked to perform 30 kicks under a difficult condition where the target size was adjusted to maintain a kicking success rate between 40 and 60% for each player while we recorded EEG data during motor preparation. Afterwards, EEG power in the 8–13 Hz frequency band was analyzed at frontal (Fz) and central (Cz) regions before action.Results: The main result indicated that successful penalty kicks were associated with lower 8-13 Hz power at frontal and central regions before action, suggesting efficient neural activation for motor planning and control during motor preparation.Discussion: These findings support the model of attention allocation and the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis, aligning with similar neuromotor processes observed in golf studies. Overall, this study highlights the critical role of motor planning and control in successful athletic performance.

Neurofeedback training (NFT) has emerged as a promising technique for enhancing sports performance by enabling individuals to self‐regulate their neural activity. However, only 53% of the 13 included studies, all of which published before 2021, in the latest meta‐analyses of NFT and motor performance focused on motor performance outcomes. Due to the rapid development of neurofeedback, 8 high‐quality articles were published in 2023–2024 alone. Therefore, there is a need for a new meta‐analysis to update the impact of NFT on sports performance. In this systematic review and meta‐analysis, we have not only reassessed the knowledge of the effect of EEG neurofeedback in motor performance but have also incorporated a standardized methodology, known as the CRED‐nf checklist (Consensus on the reporting and experimental design of clinical and cognitive‐behavioral neurofeedback studies), for methodological evaluation of previous EEG neurofeedback studies. The study protocol was pre‐registered, and a systematic search was conducted across major databases to identify relevant randomized controlled trials. A total of 25 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, with 21 studies eligible for the meta‐analysis. The meta‐analysis revealed a moderate positive effect of NFT on sport motor tasks, with a Hedges's g of 0.78 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.49–1.07. Importantly, subgroup analyses showed that studies with higher methodological quality scores, as assessed by the CRED‐nf checklist, had significantly larger effect sizes (Hedges's g = 1.07) compared to lower than median studies (Hedges's g = 0.49). This finding highlights the importance of addressing key methodological gaps, such as reporting on participant strategies, data processing methods, and the relationship between regulation success and behavioral outcomes. In conclusion, NFT showcases a moderate positive impact on sport motor task, particularly when high‐quality methodologies are employed, as assessed by the CRED‐nf checklist, underscoring the importance of rigorous study designs in future research.

The dual mechanisms of control model (DMC model) assumes that aging leads to decline in proactive control and reactive control abilities in various aspects of daily life. However, the methods adopted by previous ERP studies limit their capacity to provide in-depth information on the aging effects of neural processes, such as N2 (reactive control), P3b, and CNV (proactive control). This study aims to clarify the aging effects on proactive control and reactive control by controlling additional (potentially confounding) variables (e.g., physical fitness level) and utilizing N2, CNV, and P3b to specify neural processes in the DMC model. To achieve this goal, a total of sixty-two middle-aged and fifty-nine older adults were recruited. Participants underwent the Senior Fitness Test to measure physical fitness level. Furthermore, participants were required to perform the AX-CPT task while ERPs were recorded. The results were primarily focused on the analysis of N2 in AY trials and the analysis of P3b and CNV in BX trials. Notably, older adults exhibited faster reaction times (RT) than middle-aged adults in AY trials. Conversely, in BX trials, older adults displayed slower RT compared with middle-aged adults. Furthermore, our findings indicated that older adults had higher CNV amplitude at the parietal region in comparison with middle-aged adults in BX trials. We suggest that older adults may tend to engage more attentional resources in avoiding the false alarm in AY trials. In contrast, middle-aged adults may engage in a predictive function that directs attention to a particular response in BX trials.

Neurofeedback training (NFT) has emerged as a promising technique for enhancing sports performance by enabling individuals to self-regulate their neural activity. However, only 53% of the 13 included studies, which all published before 2021, in the latest meta-analyses of NFT and motor performance focused on motor performance outcome. Due to the rapid development of neurofeedback, 8 high-quality articles published in 2023 alone. Therefore, there is a need for a new meta-analysis to update the impact of NFT on sports performance. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we have not only updated the knowledge of the effect of EEG neurofeedback in motor performance, but have also incorporated a standardized methodology, called CRED-nf checklist (Consensus on the reporting and experimental design of clinical and cognitive-behavioural neurofeedback studies), for methodological evaluation of previous EEG neurofeedback studies. The study protocol was pre-registered, and the meta-analysis revealed a moderate positive effect of NFT on sports performance, with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of 0.71 (95% CI: 0.51-0.91, p < 0.001). Importantly, subgroup analyses showed that studies with higher methodological quality, as assessed by the checklist, had significantly larger effect sizes (SMD = 0.98) compared to lower-quality studies (SMD = 0.41). This finding highlights the importance of addressing key methodological gaps, such as reporting on participant strategies, data processing methods, and the relationship between regulation success and behavioral outcomes.

Electroencephalographic Neurofeedback Training (EEG NFT) aims to improve sport performance by teaching athletes to control their mental states, leading to better cognitive, emotional, and physical outcomes. The psychomotor efficiency hypothesis suggests that optimizing brain function could enhance athletic ability, indicating the potential of EEG NFT. However, evidence for EEG-NFT’s ability to alter critical brain activity patterns, such as sensorimotor rhythm and frontal midline theta—key for concentration and relaxation—is not fully established. Current research lacks standardized methods and comprehensive studies. This shortfall is due to inconsistent EEG target selection and insufficient focus on coherence in training. This review aims to provide empirical support for EEG target selection, conduct detailed control analyses, and examine the specificity of electrodes and frequencies to relation to the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. Following the PRISMA method, 2,869 empirical studies were identified from PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Embase, CNKI, and PsycINFO. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria: (i) proficient skill levels; (ii) use of EEG; (iii) neurofeedback training (NFT); (iv) motor performance metrics (reaction time, precision, dexterity, balance); (v) control group for NFT comparison; (vi) peer-reviewed English-language publication; and (vii) randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. Studies indicate that NFT can enhance sports performance, including improvements in shooting accuracy, golf putting, and overall motor skills, as supported by the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. EEG NFT demonstrates potential in enhancing sports performance by optimizing performers’ mental states and psychomotor efficiency. However, the current body of research is hampered by inconsistent methodologies and a lack of standardized EEG target selection. To strengthen the empirical evidence supporting EEG NFT, future studies need to focus on standardizing target selection, employing rigorous control analyses, and investigating underexplored EEG markers. These steps are vital to bolster the evidence for EEG NFT and enhance its effectiveness in boosting sport performance.

Introduction: Self-efficacy (SE), defined as an individual's belief in their ability to complete a task, is linked to top-down attentional control, influencing motor performance in sports. Although the behavioral effects of SE are well-documented, there is a lack of research on the mechanisms through which SE affects sports performance. Our research aims to elucidate the neurophysiological mechanisms that underlie the impact of self-efficacy on sports performance. Specifically, we intend to explore the effects of low and high SE on frontal midline theta (Fmθ) activity, associated with sustained top-down attention, and on motor performance.Methods: We recruited thirty-four professional golfers to perform 60 putts, during which their electroencephalographic activity was monitored. SE levels were assessed using a visual analog scale from 0 to 10 before each putt, with scores categorized into higher or lower SE based on each golfer's individual average score.Results: Paired t-tests indicated that trials with higher SE scores had a higher putting success rate than those with lower SE scores (53.3% vs. 46.7%). Furthermore, trials associated with higher SE scores exhibited lower Fmθ activity compared to those with lower SE scores (4.49 vs. 5.18).Discussion: Our results suggest that higher SE is associated with reduced top-down attentional control, leading to improved putting performance. These findings support Bandura's theory of SE, which suggests that the effects of efficacy beliefs are mediated by cognitive, motivational, emotional, and decision-making processes. This study sheds light on the intermediate processes of SE by examining its impact on the anticipation of outcomes, sports performance, and attentional control prior to putting.