Maryam Hosseini

Tissue engineering approaches for cartilage tissue regeneration are expanding to include the complex features of the tissue, such as the biological and mechanical gradients. Many of these approaches are, however, based on the use of multiple biomaterials or concentrations, and crosslinking methods that make it difficult to integrate and control the properties of the resulting scaffolds. In this study, a 3D bioprinted scaffold with a stiffness gradient was fabricated by using a single biomaterial type and concentration combined with a directional ionic crosslinking method. The scaffolds revealed a gradient in stiffness from 39.8 ± 6.6 kPa at the top to 60.6 ± 10.9 kPa at the bottom of the scaffolds. Live/dead analysis of human chondrocytes embedded in the scaffolds showed no negative effects of the stiffness gradient on cell viability over 28 days. The induced stiffness gradient led to a gradient in cell density and sulfated glycosaminoglycan deposition in the bioprinted tissue constructs with enhanced values in the softer top region of the scaffolds as compared to the stiffer bottom part. This study showed a novel method to generate scaffolds with stiffness gradients from a single biomaterial and indicates that such scaffolds could be used to spatially regulate the behavior of chondrocytes and the associated deposition of the cartilage matrix.

The treatment of articular cartilage defects remains a significant clinical challenge. This is partially due to current tissue engineering strategies failing to recapitulate native organization. Articular cartilage is a graded tissue with three layers exhibiting different cell densities: the superficial zone having the highest density and the deep zone having the lowest density. However, the introduction of cell gradients for cartilage tissue engineering, which could promote a more biomimetic environment, has not been widely explored. Here, we aimed to bioprint a scaffold with different zonal cell densities to mimic the organization of articular cartilage. The scaffold was bioprinted using an alginate-based bioink containing human articular chondrocytes. The scaffold design included three cell densities, one per zone: 20 × 10⁶ (superficial), 10 × 10⁶ (middle), and 5 × 10⁶ (deep) cells/mL. The scaffold was cultured in a chondrogenic medium for 25 days and analyzed by live/dead assay and histology. The live/dead analysis showed the ability to generate a zonal cell density with high viability. Histological analysis revealed a smooth transition between the zones in terms of cell distribution and a higher sulphated glycosaminoglycan deposition in the highest cell density zone. These findings pave the way toward bioprinting complex zonal cartilage scaffolds as single units, thereby advancing the translation of cartilage tissue engineering into clinical practice.