Nurdina Charong

Background: Red blood cell (RBC) antibody screening in blood donors is a key component of transfusion safety. However, reported prevalence and antibody specificities vary widely across studies, and a consolidated global estimate remains limited. This study aimed to quantify the prevalence of RBC antibody detection among blood donors, identify factors associated with variation in reported prevalence, and summarize antibody specificities. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines. PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched from inception to 27 August 2025 for observational studies reporting RBC antibody detection in blood donors. Methodological quality was assessed using the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Studies Reporting Prevalence Data. Pooled prevalence estimates were synthesized using random-effects models. Subgroup analyses, meta-regression, leave-one-out sensitivity analyses, and publication-bias assessments were performed. Associations between ABO blood group and RBC antibody detection were summarized using pooled odds ratios. The review protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251181987). Results: Forty-one studies comprising 43 reports and 3,561,088 blood donors from 18 countries were included. The pooled prevalence of RBC antibody detection was 0.2% (95% CI: 0.2–0.3%), with substantial between-study heterogeneity (I²: 99.61%) and a 95% prediction interval of 0.0–1.4%. Prevalence was higher in female donors than in male donors (0.5% vs. 0.1%). Publication year was inversely associated with reported prevalence, although temporal and methodological effects could not be separated. An exploratory analysis based on six studies showed higher estimated odds of antibody detection among blood group AB donors (OR: 1.20, 95% CI: 1.07–1.34). Among clinically significant antibodies, Rh and Kell specificities were predominated. Anti-Mi^a was prominent in Southeast Asian populations. Conclusions: RBC antibody detection among blood donors was uncommon overall but varied considerably across settings. Interpretation is limited by substantial methodological heterogeneity, uneven geographic representation, and incomplete reporting of donor characteristics. The pooled estimate should be interpreted as an international benchmark rather than a uniform prevalence applicable to individual blood services. This large-scale synthesis may inform context-specific donor antibody screening, confirmatory testing, component management, and hemovigilance policies.

The universe began 13.8 billion years ago, and Earth was born 4.6 billion years ago. Early traces of life were found as soon as 4.1 billion years ago; then, ~200,000 years ago, the human being was born. The evolution of life on earth was to become individual rather than cellular life. The birth of mitochondria made this possible to be the individual life. Since then, individuals have had a limited time of life. It was 1.4 billion years ago that a bacterial cell began living inside an archaeal host cell, a form of endosymbiosis that is the development of eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound compartments. The bacterium started to provide its host cell with additional energy, and the interaction eventually resulted in a eukaryotic cell, with both archaeal (the host cell) and bacterial (mitochondrial) origins still having genomes. The cells survived high concentrations of oxygen producing more energy inside the cell. Further, the roles of mitochondria in human being’s life and aging will be discussed.

Background: Cesarean sections (C-section) often require blood transfusions in cases of severe bleeding, particularly challenging in Rh-negative pregnancies due to the scarcity of Rh-negative donors, with only approximately 0.3% of the population in Thailand. Autologous blood donation, where individuals donate their own blood before surgery, offers a promising solution. Our study focused on preparing preoperative autologous blood donations (PAD) for Rh-negative pregnancies. Methods: We conducted blood screening on 7,182 pregnancies at Takuapa Hospital from October 2013 to September 2018, identifying 21 Rh-negative pregnant women. We established criteria based on hemoglobin (Hb) levels, which are crucial for autologous blood preparation (Hb at 11.0 g/dL, and hematocrit (Hct) above 33%). Blood samples were collected twice during pregnancy, at 36 and 37 weeks, with the second collection 1 week before the C-section. Pregnancies testing positive for infectious markers were excluded following standard blood donation guidelines. Twelve pregnant women testing negative for infectious markers were enrolled. Results: The demographic data showed 12 subjects aged 17 to 41 years, with an average of 27.83. Initial blood tests indicated Hb and Hct levels of 12.5 g/dL, and 36.4%, slightly decreasing to 12.2 g/dL and 35.8% in the second collection. On the day of the cesarean, levels further declined to 11.6 g/dL and 34.4%, respectively, within normal ranges. At discharge, the Hct measured 34.8%. Maternal and infant health post-C-section were good, with baby weights ranging from 2,640 to 4,080 g. None of the 12 cases required autologous blood transfusion, validating the safety of standard autologous blood preparation practices. Conclusions: This study highlights the safety of autologous blood donation for pregnant women with rare blood types, which was achieved through effective planning and collaboration among hospital departments. These findings can serve as a model for other hospitals and significantly reduce the burden of searching for Rh-negative donors.

The detection of clinically significant antibodies to red blood cell antigens is important for the selection of compatible blood for patients. The conventional test tube technique (CTT) is commonly used as the gold standard test, but manual testing and visual detection of hemagglutination may produce errors. A more recently developed method, the column agglutination technique (CAT), facilitates ease of testing. To investigate the specificity and sensitivity of the CAT compared to the CTT for the screening of clinically significant antibodies from the Rh blood group. Standard antibodies to the Rh blood group, anti-D, -C and -E, were used as examples of clinically significant antibodies in transfusion science. The antibodies were serially diluted by two-fold, then reacted with screening cells with different antigen expression. The hemagglutination reaction was investigated using both techniques, and the grades and scores of the reactions were used to analyze the sensitivity and specificity of the CTT and CAT. The CAT had a better sensitivity than the CTT. The lowest antibody dilution of 1:8192 could be detected using CAT, while a dilution of only 1:2048 could be detected with CTT. However, the CTT and CAT were equal in specificity. The 2 techniques specifically detected all antibodies to the screening cells. Both the CAT and CTT showed 100% specificity. However, the CAT exhibited more sensitivity than the CTT, and can be used in substitution of, or in parallel with, the CTT technique for red blood cell phenotyping, antibody screening, identification, and crossmatching.