Rahayu Ahmad

The widespread use of conventional plastic in food packaging has raised serious environmental issues due to its persistence and poor biodegradability. With growing concerns over plastic pollution and its long-term ecological impact, researchers are increasingly turning to natural, renewable sources for sustainable alternatives. Agricultural waste, often discarded in large quantities, offers a valuable resource for producing biodegradable polymers. This review discusses the environmental burden caused by traditional plastics and explores how agricultural residues such as rice husks, corn cobs, and fruit peels can be converted into eco-friendly packaging materials. Various types of biopolymers sourced from agricultural waste, including cellulose, starch, plant and animal-based proteins, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and polylactic acid (PLA), are examined for their properties, benefits, and limitations in food packaging applications. Each material presents unique characteristics in terms of biodegradability, mechanical strength, and barrier performance. While significant progress has been made, several challenges remain, including cost-effective production, material performance, and compliance with food safety regulations. Looking ahead, innovations in material processing, waste management integration, and biopolymer formulation could pave the way for widespread adoption. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of current developments and future directions in the use of agricultural waste for sustainable packaging solutions, comparing their biodegradability and performance to conventional plastics.

Medicinal plants have been used in traditional medicine for centuries due to their phytochemical components and medicinal properties. In this study, wild herbs Oldenlandia corymbosa (Lidah Ular), Striga asiatica (Jarum Mas) and Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung Anak) were collected from Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, dried, and grounded. The powdered samples were extracted using hot water, ethyl acetate and ethanol for 48 hours. Phytochemical analysis revealed antioxidants such as flavonoids and phenolics in all extracts, while resins were present only in the ethanolic extracts, and steroids were absent. ATR-FTIR analysis identified key functional groups, including hydroxyls, lipids, alkanes, amino acids, benzoic compounds and phenols. Additionally, the study aimed to develop a portable, easy-to-use travel soap to promote frequent handwashing. Since liquid soap and bar soap each have their own limitations, this travel soap was invented to make it easier for users. Oils from Oldenlandia corymbosa, Striga asiatica and Phyllanthus niruri were used to replace palm oil in the saponification process. The soap, shaped like a ball, allows for easier use than traditional soap and can be rolled between the fingers to effectively clean all parts of the hands and remove germs.

Medicinal plants have been used in traditional medicine for centuries due to their phytochemical components and medicinal properties. In this study, wild herbs Oldenlandia corymbosa (Lidah Ular), Striga asiatica (Jarum Mas) and Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung Anak) were collected from Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, dried, and grounded. The powdered samples were extracted using hot water, ethyl acetate and ethanol for 48 hours. Phytochemical analysis revealed antioxidants such as flavonoids and phenolics in all extracts, while resins were present only in the ethanolic extracts, and steroids were absent. ATR-FTIR analysis identified key functional groups, including hydroxyls, lipids, alkanes, amino acids, benzoic compounds and phenols. Additionally, the study aimed to develop a portable, easy-to-use travel soap to promote frequent handwashing. Since liquid soap and bar soap each have their own limitations, this travel soap was invented to make it easier for users. Oils from Oldenlandia corymbosa, Striga asiatica and Phyllanthus niruri were used to replace palm oil in the saponification process. The soap, shaped like a ball, allows for easier use than traditional soap and can be rolled between the fingers to effectively clean all parts of the hands and remove germs.

This study investigates the bioactive compounds present in the genus Pleurotus sp. mushrooms, with a focus on their antioxidant properties. Hot water extraction of Pleurotus mycelium was performed at three temperatures: 30°C, 65°C, and 100°C. A total of 57.48 g of mycelium biomass was obtained through submerged fermentation in basal medium. The objective was to identify specific phytochemicals and evaluate the percentage of free radical inhibition. The mycelium was initially cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar plates and later subjected to fermentation. Six phytochemical tests were carried out to detect alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds and anthraquinones. The analysis revealed the presence of triterpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH and nitric oxide scavenging assays. The DPPH assay showed the 65°C extract had the highest inhibition of 97.92%, while the 100°C extract exhibited the highest inhibition at 82.67%, with the 65°C extract showing the lowest at 75.38%. The results suggest that extracts at 65°C demonstrated substantial antioxidant activity, comparable to synthetic antioxidants.

This study investigates the bioactive compounds present in the genus Pleurotus sp. mushrooms, with a focus on their antioxidant properties. Hot water extraction of Pleurotus mycelium was performed at three temperatures: 30°C, 65°C, and 100°C. A total of 57.48 g of mycelium biomass was obtained through submerged fermentation in basal medium. The objective was to identify specific phytochemicals and evaluate the percentage of free radical inhibition. The mycelium was initially cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar plates and later subjected to fermentation. Six phytochemical tests were carried out to detect alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds and anthraquinones. The analysis revealed the presence of triterpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH and nitric oxide scavenging assays. The DPPH assay showed the 65°C extract had the highest inhibition of 97.92%, while the 100°C extract exhibited the highest inhibition at 82.67%, with the 65°C extract showing the lowest at 75.38%. The results suggest that extracts at 65°C demonstrated substantial antioxidant activity, comparable to synthetic antioxidants.

The extraction conditions influencing the yield of crude polysaccharide and antioxidant activity in *Lentinus edodes* were studied and optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Central composite design (CCD) was applied to optimize the extraction time and temperature. The results showed that the data were well-fitted to second-order polynomial models. The independent variables, temperature (A) and time (B), had significant linear, quadratic, and interaction effects on total carbohydrate content (TCC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and DPPH radical-scavenging activity. ANOVA analysis revealed that the models were highly significant (p < 0.001) for TCC, TFC, and DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The optimal extraction conditions were 225 minutes at 65°C, producing 55 mg/mL of carbohydrate content (TCC); 420 minutes at 100°C, yielding 53 mg/mL of flavonoid content (TFC); and 225 minutes at 65°C, resulting in 75.5% DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The models were validated, and the experimental values exceeded the predicted optimal values, reaching 66 mg/mL, 67 mg/mL, and 84.6% for TCC, TFC, and DPPH radical-scavenging activity, respectively.

The depletion of fossil fuels and the emission of greenhouse gases have increased the demand for new and sustainable energy sources, leading to growing interest in using fast-growing filamentous fungi as a source of bioenergy. This study aimed to optimize the production of exopolysaccharides (EPS) and mycelial biomass (MB) from the native medicinal mushroom, Lignosus rhinocerus, through submerged liquid fermentation. Using response surface methodology (RSM), it was found that the glucose concentration and speed of agitation significantly influenced the production of MB and EPS (p < 0.05), while the initial pH medium had an insignificant effect. The validated optimized parameters of 50.0 g/L glucose, initial pH 4.0, and 128 rpm for speed of agitation were tested in 500 mL shake flasks, 5 L, and 13 L stirred-tank (STR) bioreactors. The production of MB and EPS increased significantly by ~1.2-fold in the 5 L STR and further increased to ~1.7-fold (MB) and ~2.4-fold (EPS) in the 13 L STR bioreactor compared to the shake flask. The lipid content of MB was also determined, with a result of 2.07% w/w using the Soxhlet extraction method. To conclude, this study emphasizes the ability of L. rhinocerus as a new source of bioenergy through large-scale production, with optimized parameters serving as a reference for future research and practical applications.

Conventional stirred-tank bioreactor (STR) designs are optimised for cultures of bacteria but not fungal cultures; therefore, a new Air-L-Shaped Bioreactor (ALSB) was fabricated. The ALSB was designed to eliminate the wall growth and clumping of fungal mycelium in STRs. Ganoderma lucidum was used as a fungal model and its biomass and exopolysaccharide (EPS) production were maximised by optimising the agitation rate, glucose concentration, initial pH, and aeration via response surface methodology (RSM). The ALSB system generated 7.8 g/L of biomass (biomass optimised conditions: 110 rpm, 24 g/L glucose, pH 5.6, and 3 v/v of aeration) and 4.4 g/L of EPS (EPS optimised conditions: 90 rpm, 30 g/L glucose, pH 4, and 2.5 v/v of aeration). In combination, for both optimised conditions, biomass (7.9 g/L) and EPS (4.6 g/L) were produced at 110 rpm, 30 g/L glucose, pH 4, and 3 v/v of aeration with minimal wall growth. The data prove that the ALSB is a blueprint for efficient economical fungal cultivation.