Jahir Orozco

The acute, subacute, and subchronic oral toxicities, as well as the combined chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity, of a nanotechnology-based formulation derived from a natural extract of Eucalyptus tereticornis leaves were investigated. This nanoformulation demonstrates anti-obesogenic and potentially anti-diabetic properties. Our study aims to conduct preclinical tests to evaluate the chemical formulation. To assess acute toxicity, rats received a single oral dose of 2000 mg/kg of the nanoformulation. In the subacute trial, mice were treated with approximately 1180 mg/kg of the nanoformulation for 28 days. In the combined chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity study, the nanoformulation was administered daily at approximately 590 mg/kg for 10 months. At the end of the experiment, hematological, biochemical, and histopathological assessments were conducted. Throughout the acute, subacute, subchronic, and chronic/carcinogenicity studies, animals showed no toxic effects from the treatment or the vehicle. No histopathological lesions, such as degeneration or cell death in the liver, kidney, or gastrointestinal tract, were observed. Treatments did not cause any clinical changes, and there were no significant differences in weight, hematological, or biochemical parameters. Therefore, the nanoformulation did not produce toxic effects in the animals.

A label-free electrochemical immunosensor for carcinoembryonic antigens (CEA) detection is reported based on a built-in thiol-mesoporous carbon architecture. The material was functionalized with 3-maleimidepropionic acid to immobilize anti-CEA antibodies. The immunosensor was characterized using field-emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Biorecognition events were monitored by differential pulse voltammetry, with current intensity dependent on protein concentration. The device exhibited a linear range of 1–10 ng mL^-1 for CEA, with a clinically relevant limit of detection of 1.02 ng mL^-1. The immunosensor successfully detected CEA in human serum samples, with results comparable to those obtained by a standard spectrophotometric method. This platform has proven to be a promising alternative for the prognosis and management of patients with colorectal cancer, as well as having significant potential for point-of-care diagnosis. AbstractSection Graphical Abstract

Microwave technologies have emerged as powerful tools for biomedical diagnosis and therapy due to their non-ionizing nature, sensitivity to dielectric changes, and compatibility with compact, low-cost systems. This review provides a unified perspective that integrates the biophysical foundations of dielectric characterization with advances in biosensing, imaging, and therapeutic microwave platforms. A systematic examination of the primary material characterization techniques—non-resonant, transmission-line resonant, and metamaterial-based methods—highlights how their frequency-dependent interactions with biological media underpin molecular, cellular, and tissue-level sensing. We synthesize recent progress in microstrip and resonant biosensors for detecting biochemical, metabolic, oncological, and pathogenic biomarkers, alongside developments in microwave imaging for functional tissue assessment and energy-based therapies such as hyperthermia and ablation. This integrated framework clarifies how the methodological diversity of microwave systems supports increasingly specialized biomedical applications. Despite their promise, current microwave technologies face several barriers to clinical translation, including variability in dielectric models, calibration and reproducibility challenges, spatial-resolution constraints, and limited in vivo validation. Addressing these limitations requires advancing beyond traditional architectures. Accordingly, this review also consolidates emerging trends in microfluidics, wearable and implantable platforms, artificial intelligence (AI)-driven signal interpretation, and multimodal integration, illustrating how these capabilities enhance sensing performance, enable adaptive therapy monitoring, and advance microwave systems toward personalized theranostic applications. By articulating the interplay between methods, capabilities, and unresolved challenges, a comprehensive and timely roadmap is offered that distinguishes microwave technologies from conventional diagnostic modalities and underscores their unique potential in next-generation biomedical engineering. Graphical Abstract

Schematic representation of the amphiphilic random copolymer PEMA- r -NBA and the resulting self-assembly into polymersomes. The scheme is not to scale.

The development of red-light photoelectrochemical (PEC) nanoimmunosensors offers new avenues for detecting clinically relevant biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. Herein, the first PEC nanoimmunosensor based on a plasmonic graphene and gold nanostar (AuNS) heterojunction excited with 765 nm red light is presented for label-free detection of C-reactive protein (CRP), a key biomarker of inflammation. This platform leverages the unique localized surface plasmon resonance effect of AuNSs in combination with in situ generated graphene to enhance photoelectrical conversion efficiency under 765 nm monochromatic light. This wavelength minimizes photodamage and interference from biological samples. By optimizing the nanoarchitecture and utilizing a bifunctional photoactive transduction platform, a linear detection range of 25-800 pg/mL is achieved, with a limit of detection as low as 13.3 pg/mL. The low-energy red-light activation, effective electron-hole pair separation, and signal amplification allow CRP's rapid, selective, and sensitive detection in real clinical samples from patients with low-grade chronic inflammation. The nanoimmunosensor demonstrated consistent analytical performance across multiple samples, showing potential for accurate biomarker monitoring in inflammatory disorders. This work highlights plasmonic nanomaterials to develop robust PEC immunosensors that provide scalable, noninvasive, automated, low-background noise as a highly sensitive alternative for clinical diagnostics.

: Interleukin-6 (IL6) is a cytokine mainly involved in inflammatory processes associated with various diseases, from rheumatoid arthritis and pathogen-caused infections to cancer, where malignant cells exhibit high proliferation and overexpression of cytokines, including IL6. Furthermore, IL6 plays a fundamental role in detecting and differentiating tumor cells, including colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. Therefore, given its range of biological activities and pathological role, IL6 determination has been claimed for the diagnosis/prognosis of immune-mediated diseases. Herein, a comparative study is presented of labeled and label-free electrochemical immunosensors involving a hierarchical Au@Pt nanoparticle/polymer hybrid material for detecting IL6. The electrochemical immunosensors were independently coupled to the surface of screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) previously modified with polymeric layers. While in the label-free immunosensor, an anti-IL6 antibody (IL6-Ab) was covalently bound to the modified SPCE surface, in the sandwich-like amperometric immunosensor, an anti-biotinylated-IL6 antibody (B-IL6-Ab) was attached to the electrode through biotin-avidin affinity interactions. The label-free format employed a straightforward detection of IL6 by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The resulting electrochemical immunosensors exhibited a linear dynamic range from 50 to 750 pg/mL IL6, with detection limits (LOD) of 14.4 and 6.0 pg/mL for label-free and sandwich-like immunosensors, respectively. This outstanding performance makes them versatile platforms for clinical analysis of a panel of biomarkers for early diagnosis/prognosis of inflammatory processes associated with oncological diseases, among other pathologies.

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) nanobiosensors integrate molecular (bio)recognition elements with semiconductor/plasmonic photoactive nanomaterials to produce measurable signals after light-induced reactions. Recent advancements in PEC nanobiosensors, using light-matter interactions, have significantly improved sensitivity, specificity, and signal-to-noise ratio in detecting (bio)analytes. Tunable nanomaterials activated by a wide spectral radiation window coupled to electrochemical transduction platforms have further improved detection by stabilizing and amplifying electrical signals. This work reviews PEC biosensors based on nanomaterials like metal oxides, carbon nitrides, quantum dots, and transition metal chalcogenides (TMCs), showing their superior optoelectronic properties and analytical performance for the detection of clinically relevant biomarkers. Furthermore, it highlights the innovative role of red light and NIR-activated PEC nanobiosensors in enhancing charge transfer processes, protecting them from biomolecule photodamage in vitro and in vivo applications. Overall, advances in PEC detection systems have the potential to revolutionize rapid and accurate measurements in clinical diagnostic applications. Their integration into miniaturized devices also supports the development of portable, easy-to-use diagnostic tools, facilitating point-of-care (POC) testing solutions and real-time monitoring.