Arkadiusz Grzeczka

Carnivora consists of two large groups, namely Feliformia and Caniformia. These two large groups of animals clearly differ from each other morphologically and behaviourally. They are primarily predators whose hunting habits have led to the development of specific appearance traits. The locomotor apparatus, which is a key system in the hunting process, is controlled by the nervous system. The part responsible for the thoracic limb is the brachial plexus (PB). As indicated in domestic mammals, the structure of the PB has a general pattern that is subject to modifications depending on the species. Among Carnivora, there is similarity in PB structure, but crucial differences are also present. In this article, the ventral branches of the spinal nerves, nerve trunks, nerve cords and peripheral nerves are discussed along with their branches in the arm and antebrachium. The main aim of this paper is to demonstrate the structure of the brachial plexus specific to Carnivora and to distinguish the modifications that occur in this group of animals. Due to the high phylogenetic diversity of the species, the plexus structure was analysed against the current taxonomy of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) in dogs and cats represent a definite minority of cardiac patients. One of the most commonly diagnosed is ventricular septal defects (VSDs). These are associated with abnormal ventricular septation during the prenatal period; however, the mutations of the genes responsible for this phenomenon are not fully understood. VSDs pose a significant diagnostic challenge due to the multitude of locations in the ventricular septum where they are likely to occur. Therefore, there are many phenotypes of the defect causing many problems in terms of a common nomenclature. Among the various classifications, the latest terminology issued by The International Society for Nomenclature of Paediatric and Congenital Heart Disease (ISNPCHD) considers both electrical conduction pathways and adjacent structures to standardize nomenclature. Further, defects located at different sites can alter both prognosis and subsequent management for the patient; thus, taking accurate measurements is crucial. Among these, the Qp:Qs and VSD:Ao ratios, the direction of blood flow through the defect, its location, the diameter and maximum flow velocity, and the pressure difference between the RV and LV are indicated. Emerging technologies such as 3D echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance may provide additional diagnostic value. Altogether, along with clinical symptoms, we should determine further management, involving the monitoring of the patient, the implementation of pharmacological treatment, or referral for surgical closure of the VSD. This review summarizes current knowledge on VSD, where the pathogenesis of the condition, diagnosis, and management, including conventional and surgical methods as well as long-term follow-up, are described, providing a complete overview of the issue.

Background: In this study, we described the anatomy of the brachial plexus of the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). The description of the brachial plexus anatomy can contribute to the knowledge of the neuroanatomy of small mammals. Furthermore, it is a source of information for clinicians performing brachial plexus anesthesia in exotic animals such as the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). Materials and methods: Cavia porcellus cadavers were fixed in a 10% formalin solution. The examination of 20 specimens of this species allowed us to assess the extent of the brachial plexus, the nerves exiting it, and the extent of their innervation. Most commonly, it consisted of C6-T1 but could also include branches of C5 and T2. The plexus consisted of three trunks and four cords. We distinguished 15 nerves: n. subclavius, n. brachiocephalicus, n. dorsalis scapulae, n. suprascapularis, nn. subscapulares, n. axillaris, n. musculocutaneus, nn. pectorales craniales, n. radialis, n. medianus, n. ulnaris, n. thoracodorsalis, n. thoracicus lateralis, n. thoracicus longus, and nn. pectorales caudales. We elaborated the innervation range of all identified nerves and updated data from existing papers. Results: We presented the detailed anatomy of the n. musculocutaneous, brachiocephalicus, and pectoral nerves, which were not distinguished in previous papers or for which the structure was insufficiently known, and compared our results with existing work. Conclusions: Based on the innervation and the extent of the plexus, it can be confirmed that Cavia porcellus has a brachial plexus with a structure that is characteristic of rodents. Keywords: rodent nerves roots ventral branch

In veterinary medicine, hyperbaric oxygen chamber treatment (HBOT) is gaining popularity. Therefore, an increasing number of patients referred for this therapy are being recorded, mainly due to ischemic events, wound healing support, and a high risk of reperfusion damage. During the HBOT procedure, several changes occur in the body’s micro- and macroenvironments. This study involved 34 dogs of various ages and health statuses. The atmospheric conditions in the test hyperbaric chamber included a pressure of 1.5 atmosphere absolute (ATA) at 100% oxygenation. The individuals were divided into three groups: (1) individuals with degenerative mitral valve disease (DMVD), (2) individuals with diseases other than cardiac issues, and (3) healthy individuals who qualified for the HBOT procedure. The period of measurement using the Holter apparatus was divided into four stages: 30 min before the subject’s placement in the hyperbaric chamber; a 4-min compression period (setting chamber conditions); a 90 min HBOT period; and a 1 min decompression period of the hyperbaric chamber. During the HBOT, there was a statistically significant decrease in heart rate in groups 2 and 3 compared to group 1. The heart rate in group 1 remained unchanged through every period of the study. In addition, some of the dogs developed respiratory arrhythmia; in two dogs, premature ventricle beats occurred. The changes observed during the ventricular period indicate that the HBOT procedure causes a significant change in heart rate in dogs without cardiac diseases.

Resveratrol (RES) is a polyphenol with natural anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It is found in abundance in plants, i.e., grapes and mulberry fruit. In addition, synthetic forms of RES exist. Since the discovery of its specific biological properties, RES has emerged as a candidate substance not only with modeling effects on the immune response but also as an important factor in preventing the onset and progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Previous research provided strong evidence of the effects of RES on platelets, mitochondria, cardiomyocytes, and vascular endothelial function. In addition, RES positively affects the coagulation system and vasodilatory function and improves blood flow. Not only in humans but also in veterinary medicine, cardiovascular diseases have one of the highest incidence rates. Canine and human species co-evolved and share recent evolutionary selection processes, and interestingly, numerous pathologies of companion dogs have a human counterpart. Knowledge of the impact of RES on the cardiovascular system of dogs is becoming clearer in the literature. Dogs have long been recognized as valuable animal models for the study of various human diseases as they share many physiological and genetic similarities with humans. In this review, we aim to shed light on the pleiotropic effects of resveratrol on cardiovascular health in dogs as a translational model for human cardiovascular diseases.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is an important subset of all cardiovascular diseases in dogs. Among them, there are a number of other less commonly described congenital malformations. One of these is the atrioventricular canal, which involves a defect that has several phenotypes. This report details a case of a complete atrioventricular canal (cAVC) defect. Using Rastelli’s classification scheme, the diagnosis of a type-A cAVC defect was based on two-dimensional, contrast, and color Doppler echocardiography. Despite a severe defect that resulted in the atypical anatomy of the atrioventricular apparatus, as well as significant hemodynamic changes in the heart, the affected dog remained asymptomatic throughout the 48-month follow-up period. Due to its stable clinical condition, the decision was made not to begin pharmacological therapy. As this defect is rare in dogs, there are limited data in the literature on this condition. Therefore, in clinical practice, the management and monitoring of the patient may pose difficulties. Due to such limited data, it can be very difficult to provide a prognosis. For the above reasons, we hope that the following case will contribute valuable information for the monitoring of this kind of CHD.

This paper was focused on the anatomy of the brachial plexus of the caracal ( Caracal caracal ). This study identified the characteristics of this species and determined its similarity to other representatives of the Felidae. During the study, have recognized the following nerves: brachiocephalic ( n. brachiocephalicus ), suprascapular ( n. suprascapularis ), subscapular ( n. subscapularis ), axillary ( n. axillaris ), cranial pectoral ( n. pectorales craniales ), caudal pectoral ( n. pectorales caudales ), lateral thoracic ( n. thoracicus lateralis ), long thoracic ( n. thoracicus longus ), thoracodorsal ( n. thoracodorsalis ), radial ( n. radialis ), median ( n. medianus ) and ulnar ( n. ulnaris ). The formation of the plexus, the number and course of the identified nerves are important for comparative and clinical reasons. The plexus of the Caracal was constructed from branches C6-T1, which is characteristic of this group of animals. The information from this description may also be of use in work on anesthesiology. Veterinarians treating wild and zoo animals will benefit from a detailed knowledge of this study.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a common cardiovascular condition in cats, affecting yth males and females of all ages. Some breeds, such as Ragdolls and Maine Coons, can develop HCM at a young age. The disease has a wide range of progression and severity, characterized by various pathological changes in the heart, including arteritis, fibrous tissue deposition, and myocardial cell hypertrophy. Left ventricular hypertrophy, which can restrict blood flow, is a common feature of HCM. The disease may persist into old age and eventually lead to heart failure and increased diastolic pressure. The basis of HCM in cats is thought to be genetic, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood. Mutations in sarcomeric proteins, in particular myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3), have been identified in cats with HCM. Two specific mutations, MYBPC3 [R818W] and MYBPC3 [A31P], have been classified as ‘pathogenic’. Other variants in genes such as MYBPC3, TNNT2, ALMS1, and MYH7 are also associated with HCM. However, there are cases where cats without known genetic mutations still develop HCM, suggesting the presence of unknown genetic factors contributing to the disease. This work aims to summarise the new knowledge of HCM in cats and the alterations in cardiac tissue as a result of genetic variants.

This study aimed to evaluate the oral supplementation of astaxanthin (ATX) on inflammatory markers in 3-year-old Arabian racehorses. Despite the recognized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of ATX observed in vitro in rodent models and in human athletes, the effects in equine subjects remain unknown. This study involved a controlled trial with 14 horses receiving either ATX (six horses) or a placebo (eight horses), monitored over four months of race training. Inflammatory cytokines: TNFα, IFNγ, IL-6, IL-10, and prostaglandin E (PGE), were measured monthly to assess the impact of ATX on the inflammatory response. The results indicated no significant differences in measured parameters between the ATX and the control group during the study. However, a significant time-dependent decrease in TNFα and IFNγ levels (p = 0.001) was observed in both groups, suggesting that regular training naturally modulates inflammatory responses. Moreover, positive correlations were noted between TNFα and IFNγ (p < 0.001) in the early phase of the study and between IL-6 and IL-10 (p = 0.008) in the later phase. Hematological parameters remained stable and within reference ranges, indicating no adverse effects of ATX supplementation. Performance metrics, including the number of races completed and wins, showed no significant differences between groups, suggesting that ATX did not enhance athletic performance under the study conditions. Overall, while ATX supplementation affected neither cytokine levels nor performance in Arabian racehorses, the natural anti-inflammatory effects of regular training were evident. Further research is needed to explore potential benefits of ATX supplementation under different conditions, such as in horses with subclinical inflammation or varying training regimens, to fully clarify its role and applications in equine sports medicine.

Pulmonary venous hypertension (PVH) is caused by deteriorating left ventricular function. The most common cause of PVH in dogs is myxomatous mitral valve degeneration (MMVD). It causes left ventricular volume overload and an increase in left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure (PVH), which leads to pulmonary vascular wall remodeling and contributes to the perpetuation and worsening of PVH. Pulmonary vascular wall remodeling is also characteristic of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). However, the changes in PVH arise secondary to heart failure and vascular remodeling progresses as the disease progresses. On the other hand, PAH is a primary disease that can be triggered, for example, by the use of certain drugs. Similar structural changes may suggest the influence of similar pathophysiological mechanisms or the intermediation of similar mediators. Therefore, this article discusses recent and hitherto uncommented findings elucidating the pathophysiology of the processes and influences on the pattern of histological changes observed in pulmonary hypertension secondary to degenerative mitral valve disease. In particular, we focus on the activity of factors such as endothelin, serotonin, and nitric oxide, which are involved in pulmonary vascular wall remodeling in both PVH and PAH.