Miriam Mulders

Virtual reality (VR) has been proposed as a promising tool to enhance social competences in higher education, especially in resource-constrained counseling seminars. This study investigates the effects of a single-session VR-based training on university students’ counseling competence and self-efficacy. Forty-five students took part in a standardized counseling scenario delivered through a realistic social VR environment, interacting with a trained actor in real time. Pre- and post-training questionnaires assessed changes in self-efficacy and counseling competence, alongside measures of presence, realism, cognitive load, and perspective-taking. Results showed small, non-significant improvements in both outcome variables. Regression analyses revealed that perceived realism significantly predicted counseling competence, while presence and extraneous cognitive load influenced perspective-taking. However, the limited duration of the intervention and the absence of a control group constrain causal inferences. Despite these limitations, the study provides initial empirical support for the integration of VR technologies into counselor education and outlines key factors for effective implementation. Future research should explore adaptive, Artificial Intelligence (AI)-enhanced VR environments that allow for repeated practice and personalized feedback to fully realize the potential of VR in social skills training.

This methodological and conceptual contribution develops an integrative framework for research on educational technology that systematically links internal and external validity, different research approaches, and heterogeneous outcome dimensions. Drawing on the recurring disappointment regarding the limited learning benefits of digital technologies— illustrated by the example of virtual reality (VR)—the article argues that technological innovations can only be adequately assessed if their effects can be clearly attributed and transferred to authentic learning contexts. Using central research logics, including media comparison, value-added, and ATI/LTI approaches, it shows how the choice of research approach shapes the type of evidence generated and the associated validity requirements. In addition, the article extends existing outcome models by incorporating a behavioral dimension to reflect the multidimensional nature of teaching and learning processes. The proposed framework illustrates that progress in educational technology research depends on the combination of methodological rigor, context-sensitive evidence, and multidimensional outcome assessment. Finally, practice-oriented recommendations are presented to support cumulative evidence development, transparent reporting standards, and the integration of laboratory and field research.

Der Beitrag adressiert zwei zentrale Forschungslücken im Diskurs zu Virtual ­Reality (VR) in Bildungskontexten. Erstens wird immersives Lernen bislang vorwiegend in kognitionspsychologischen Kategorien beschrieben, während affektive und körperliche Dimensionen weitgehend unberücksichtigt bleiben. Zweitens dominieren Studien, die VR als kurzfristige Intervention in Prä-Post-Designs modellieren und damit die Frage ausblenden, wie immersive Erfahrungen in längere Erfahrungsverläufe eingebettet sind. Der Beitrag entwickelt vor diesem Hintergrund eine medienpädagogische Perspektive, die immersive Lernprozesse als zyklische Erfahrungsbewegungen rekonstruiert, in denen kognitive, affektive und körperliche Reaktionsmuster verschränkt auftreten und durch vorbereitende, immersive und nachbereitende Aktivitäten gerahmt werden. Veranschaulicht wird diese Perspektive am Beispiel eines VR-gestützten Kommunikationstrainings in der Hochschullehre, in dem Studierende Gesprächsführungstechniken mit KI-basierten Avataren erproben. Die Analyse zeigt, dass die pädagogische Bedeutsamkeit immersiver Episoden nicht in der virtuellen Situation selbst liegt, sondern in ihrer didaktischen Einbettung, insbesondere in Reflexions- und Konzeptualisierungsprozesse. Der Beitrag versteht sich als Angebot zur Weiterentwicklung eines erfahrungsorientierten immersiven Lernens im medienpädagogischen Diskurs.

Research on the use of artificial intelligence in education is rapidly accumulating. In the ChatGPT literature, two recent meta-analyses were published (Deng et al., 2025 and Wang & Fan, 2025) that examined media comparisons between ChatGPT and more traditional forms of instruction; both reviews found ChatGPT to improve learning. However, as researchers have found in media comparisons studies (e.g., Clark, 1983; Lawson et al., 2024), instructional methods are often not controlled between conditions, making it difficult to attribute any learning differences to affordances of the medium itself. Therefore, the purpose of our critical review was to examine those media comparisons studies included in Deng et al. (2025) and Wang and Fan (2025) to understand whether the ChatGPT and control conditions were comparable on their instructional features (i.e., matched on instructional methods, practice with the dependent measure, and time spent learning the content). Results indicated a lack of control in the ChatGPT studies that were reviewed, with many studies conflating the use of ChatGPT with other instructional features. Further, across the various direct learning outcomes, studies often did not include enough information to determine the comparability of conditions. For the most common learning outcome (i.e., ChatGPT > Control), comparisons often involved a confound between conditions as well as missing information about instructional features. Therefore, the benefits of ChatGPT must be interpreted with caution at the present time, and more research is needed to determine how, for whom, and under what pedagogical conditions ChatGPT can improve learning.

Understanding how different debriefing formats impact learner’s cognitive load is crucial for designing effective post-simulation reflection activities. This paper examines cognitive load after post-simulation debriefings facilitated either by a human instructor or a generative AI Chatbot. In a controlled study with N = 45 educational science students, 23 participants engaged in a lecturer-facilitated debriefing, while 22 completed a chatbot-guided session. Cognitive load was assessed across intrinsic, extraneous, and germane dimensions. Results revealed no statistically significant differences between the two debriefing methods. Future research should examine AI-led debriefings with larger samples and employ complementary measures of cognitive load to provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Simulation-based learning has established itself as a powerful instructional method in higher education, especially in domains that require complex interpersonal competencies such as counseling. Debriefing plays a pivotal role in transforming simulation experiences into meaningful learning by fostering critical reflection and integration of knowledge. While expert-facilitated debriefings are considered the gold standard, recent advancements in generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) have made chatbot-guided self-debriefings a scalable alternative. This study examines the effectiveness of moderated versus chatbot-supported debriefing formats following a Virtual Reality (VR)-based counseling simulation. A total of 45 undergraduate students in educational science participated in a controlled experiment. All participants engaged in a VR counseling scenario and were subsequently assigned to either a human-moderated or a chatbot-guided debriefing condition. The study investigated changes in counseling competence, self-efficacy, and learner perceptions across the two debriefing formats. Both self-efficacy and counseling competence increased significantly over time. The largest gains, particularly in counseling competence, were recorded after the debriefing, even though these gains were independent of the specific debriefing method employed. These findings underscore the importance of debriefing in educational contexts and indicate that a chatbot-based format could serve as a feasible alternative to traditional, moderator-led debriefings.