Yelitza Coromoto Colmenarez

Global population growth has increased the demand for food production and, therefore, for higher crop yields, especially for soybean, which is one of the most cost-effective and affordable sources of high-quality protein for animal and human nutrition. This frequently leads to an overuse of traditional chemical insecticides to maximize yields, thereby triggering negative side effects. However, both consumers and governments around the world demand a reduction in chemical insecticides in agriculture. To address this challenge, pest control must be guided by proper adoption of economic thresholds (ETs), which indicate the most appropriate time to initiate control in the crop. Despite the well-documented science behind ETs, farmers have questioned the adoption and reliability in a search for higher production, highlighting the importance of reviewing this topic. Thus, based on the available literature, the role of ETs in optimizing insecticide application in soybean production around the world is herein discussed, highlighting the importance of their adoption to mitigate the overuse of chemicals by emphasizing examples from the major world soybean producers (Brazil, the United States of America, Argentina, and China). In conclusion, this review highlights the importance of changing farmers’ perception that using more insecticide is necessary to guarantee higher yields. On the contrary, only by the adoption of ETs within Integrated Pest Management is it possible to obtain better pest management and, consequently, reduce yield loss. Despite some limitations related to their simplicity and risks of adoption, the use of ETs improves soybean sustainability and farmers’ profits while benefiting the agroecosystem. For future directions, their complexity should increase to more realistically represent agroecosystems; in addition, tools should be developed (computer programs and smartphone apps using, for instance, artificial intelligence) to translate this complexity into easy-to-adopt ETs.

Global population growth underscores the increasing demands for food production, and therefore, for higher crop yields, especially in soybean, as the cheapest source of protein for animal and human nutrition. This scenario frequently leads to overuse of traditional chemical insecticides to maximize yields, thereby triggering adverse side effects. However, both consumers and governments around the world have been demanding reduction of chemical insecticides in agriculture. To address this challenge, pest control must be guided by proper adoption of economic thresholds (ETs), which indicate the most appropriate time to initiate insecticide applications. Despite the well-documented science behind ETs, not only its adoption but also its reliability has been questioned by farmers in a search for higher production, highlighting the importance of reviewing this topic. Thus, this review discusses, based on the available literature, the role of ETs to optimize insecticide application in soybean production, highlining the importance of their adoption to mitigate the overuse of chemicals. In Brazil, the major soybean producer in the world, not only did growers who adopted ETs to control pests in soybean reduce the amount of pesticides required, but also production costs associated with pest control, while achieving greater yields than conventional producers. The use of ETs improves soybean sustainability and farmers profit while benefitting the agroecosystem.

Soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, is usually grown on a large scale, with pest control based on chemical insecticides. However, the overuse of chemicals has led to several adverse effects requiring more sustainable approaches to pest control. Results from Integrated Pest Management (IPM) employed on Brazilian soybean farms indicate that adopters of the technology have reduced insecticide use by approximately 50% relative to non-adopters, with yields comparable to or slightly higher than those of non-adopters. This reduction can be explained not only by the widespread use of Bt soybean cultivars across the country but also by the adoption of economic thresholds (ETs) in a whole Soybean-IPM package, which has reduced insecticide use. However, low refuge compliance has led to the first cases of pest resistance to Cry1Ac, thereby leading to the return of overreliance on chemical control and posing additional challenges for IPM practitioners. The recent global agenda for decarbonized agriculture might help to support the adoption of IPM since less chemical insecticides sprayed over the crops reduces CO₂-equivalent emissions from its application. In addition, consumers’ demand for less pesticide use in food production has favored the increased use of bio-inputs in agriculture, helping mitigate overdependence of agriculture on chemical inputs to preserve yields. Despite the challenges of adopting IPM discussed in this review, the best way to protect soybean yield and preserve the environment remains as IPM, integrating plant resistance (including Bt cultivars), ETs, scouting procedures, selective insecticides, biological control, and other sustainable tools, which help sustain environmental quality in an ecological and economical manner. Soon, those tools will include RNAi, CRISPR-based control strategies, among other sustainable alternatives intensively researched around the world.

The overreliance on chemical pesticides in Ecuadorian agriculture raises serious concerns regarding environmental sustainability and public health. This study aimed to assess farmers’ perceptions and knowledge of sustainable pest management strategies across three agricultural systems in Tungurahua province: indigenous family farming (Salasaka), fruit production (Patate) and horticulture (Izamba). A structured survey was administered to 162 farmers, and responses were analysed using descriptive statistics and multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) to characterise patterns across systems. Pesticide use remained widespread, largely driven by perceived effectiveness in pest suppression and yield improvement. Farmers also reported substantial concerns regarding the health and environmental risks associated with pesticide application. Horticultural farmers exhibited the highest risk awareness and greater adoption of alternative methods, including biological control using entomopathogenic microorganisms. In contrast, fruit and indigenous family systems showed lower awareness and minimal use of alternatives, despite reporting symptoms consistent with pesticide exposure. Key constraints limiting adoption included limited access to biocontrol inputs, lack of training and inconsistent field efficacy. MCA further revealed marked differences in risk perception and pesticide dependency across systems. These findings highlight the need for targeted training, improved access to sustainable inputs and context‐specific policies promoting agroecological pest management. Strengthening farmer capacity in integrated and biological pest control could reduce pesticide reliance while improving agro‐ecosystem health.

Soybean is usually grown at large scales, with pest control based on insecticides. However, the overuse of chemicals has led to several adverse effects. Thus, integrated pest management (IPM) is the best way to protect yield through integrating different pest control tools, based on plant resistance (including Bt cultivars), adoption of economic thresholds (ETs), scouting procedures, use of selective insecticides, biological control, and other sustainable tools, which help maintain environmental quality in an ecological and economical manner. Soon, those tools will also include RNAi, CRISPR based control strategies, among other sustainable alternatives. In Brazil, results from the Soybean-IPM Program indicate that adopters of the technology have reduced insecticide use by approximately 50% relative to non-adopters, with yields comparable to or slightly higher than those of non-adopters. This reduction can be explained not only by the widespread adoption of Bt soybean varieties across the country but also by the adoption of ETs in Soybean-IPM, which has reduced insecticide use, thereby increasing natural biological control in the agroecosystem. However, low refuge compliance has led to the first cases of pest resistance to Cry1Ac, thereby growing reliance on chemical control and posing an additional challenge for integrated pest management practitioners. The obstacles to adopting IPM programs for commodity crops, such as soybean, may be mitigated by recent economic incentives within the new global agenda for decarbonized agriculture and the increase of bioinputs available in the Brazilian market. Such incentives can support the broader adoption of IPM, thereby reducing dependence on chemical inputs to achieve high yields.

Oligonychus yothersi (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a significant pest in coffee crops, however, it can feed on a number of plant species from different families in the Neotropical region. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the host plant on biology and life tables of O. yothersi on peach, apple and rose leaves under laboratory climate-controlled conditions (21 °C ± 1 °C, 52% ± 10% HR, 12:12 photoperiod). The life cycle of O. yothersi showed differences in the duration of some developmental stages. The stages from egg to teleiochrysalis were significantly shorter on peach. Regarding the reproductive parameters, the preoviposition time was shorter when the mite was reared on peach leaves, while no differences were observed on apple and rose leaves. Maximum values of oviposition, postoviposition, fecundity, and longevity periods were observed on peach leaves, followed by apple, and rose leaves. According to our results, peach leaves seem to provide better conditions for the development of O. yothersi, potentially posing a threat not only to this crop but also to apple cultivation, as these crops often grow in association in the Andean region from Ecuador.

Egg parasitoids, such as Telenomus remus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), face significant challenges after release, as their pupae are exposed to various mortality factors that reduce the efficiency of biological control programs. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate a honey-solid diet that can feed adults still inside the capsules without sticking the wasps on its surface, enabling parasitoid storage and later field release. Three independent bioassays were performed, each with 20 completely randomized replications. The first bioassay evaluated the acceptance of a solid feed—honey soaked in cotton thread—compared to the traditional form—honey droplets. In the second bioassay, the storage periods after emergence of adults in capsules with honey-solid food were analyzed at 2, 4, 6, and 8 days post-emergence, and the third bioassay studied the efficacy of different release densities of fed adults under field conditions. Parasitoids fed on the honey-solid diet exhibited a 13.3% reduction in parasitism compared to honey droplets. However, the sticky, viscous nature of honey can lead to parasitoids becoming glued, potentially leading to their death. T. remus feeding on the honey-solid diet resulted in low mortality inside the capsules, living up to six days with only 22.2% reduction in parasitism capacity, making it a viable alternative to release and transport fed adult parasitoids, with an increase of around 30% in the released density of parasitoids compared with the parasitoids fed on honey droplets. This flexibility of releasing T. remus up to six days after emergence provided valuable knowledge to establish T. remus as a biocontrol agent. Furthermore, the highest tested parasitoid density of 20,000 parasitoids per hectare obtained the highest parasitism of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) eggs. However, future studies are still required with higher releasing densities and less expensive methods of mass rearing the parasitoid for those higher densities to be economically viable.

E gg parasitoids, such as Telenomus remus, face significant challenges after release, as their pupae are exposed to various mortality factors that reduce the efficiency of biological control programs. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate a solid diet that In this context, this study aimed to evaluate a solid diet that allows feeding adults while still inside the release capsules, enabling its storage and field application for adults. Three independent bioassays were performed, each with 20 completely randomized replications. The first bioassay evaluated the acceptance of a solid feed, honey soaked in cotton thread, compared to the traditional form, honey droplets. In the second bioassay, the storage periods after emergence of adults in capsules with solid food were analyzed, at 2, 4, 6 and 8 days post-emergence and the third bioassay was studied the efficacy of different release densities under field conditions. The results showed that the solid diet was well accepted in relation to the traditional diet, in addition, T. remus resulted in lower mortality inside the capsules, living up to four days without significant reductions in biological parameters or parasitism capacity. Therefore, the recommended dose of 20,000 parasitoids per hectare is not enough to keep S. frugiperda under economic thresholds. The flexibility of until four days to the release and the insights regarding the densitys provide a valuable improvement to establish T. remus as a biocontrol agent.