Yoann Saillour

D’une organisation très complexe, le cortex résulte de différents processus coordonnés qui comprennent la neurogenèse, la migration et la différenciation neuronales. L’altération d’un ou plusieurs de ces processus peut entrainer chez l’homme l’apparition de malformations du développement cortical (MDC).L’identification de mutations chez des patients présentant des MDC dans les gènes DCX et LIS1 codant des protéines s’associant directement ou indirectement aux microtubules a montré le rôle primordial du cytosquelette dans le développement cortical. Ce constat fut renforcé par la découverte de mutations dans des gènes codant des sous-unités tubulines elles-mêmes (TUBA1A, TUBB2B et TUBB5), unités structurelles et fonctionnelles des microtubules.Notre étude apporte des contributions à cette observation importante. En effet, nous avons tout d’abord identifié l'existence de six mutations faux-sens dans le gène TUBB3, chez douze patients, incluant un cas fœtal. Les mutations ont été trouvées principalement à l'état hétérozygote et peuvent être de novo ou transmises selon un mode autosomique dominant. Tous les patients ont en commun des anomalies complexes du développement du cortex, évocatrices de polymicrogyries frontales ou de désorganisations et simplifications gyrales en combinaison avec des anomalies du corps calleux et de la capsule interne des ganglions de la base ainsi qu'une hypoplasie du pont et du cervelet. La deuxième partie de ce travail s’intéresse à l’effet de la perte d’expression de la tubuline β3 et des mutations responsables de MDC sur les processus de la migration radiaire des neurones pyramidaux par une approche d’électroporation in utero chez la souris. L’inactivation de Tubb3 entraine un défaut de migration drastique : la majorité des cellules électroporées sont présentes dans la zone sous ventriculaire et la zone intermédiaire. Des explorations montrent une diminution du nombre de cellules multipolaires présentant des processus multiples et bien élongés, et une augmentation du nombre de cellules rondes ne présentant pas ou peu de processus. Ces résultats laissent penser que la diminution de Tubb3 entraine des défauts du contrôle des étapes de multipolarisation et rebipolarisation des neurones pyramidaux lors de la migration radiale. Nous avons également mis en évidence une augmentation de la population de progéniteurs intermédiaires électroporés avec l’ARNsh anti-Tubb3. Cette augmentation est accompagnée d’une forte diminution de leur division cellulaire. Ce résultat soulève de nombreuses questions sur le rôle potentiel de Tubb3 dans cette population. Enfin, nous avons pu constater que l’arrêt de migration observé peut être sauvé par une surexpression du transcrit de TUBB3 alors que les tubulines TUBB1, TUBB2B et TUBB4A sont dans l’incapacité de restaurer pleinement la migration radiaire des neurones sous exprimant Tubb3. Ces observations tendent à étayer l’hypothèse selon laquelle les sous unités tubulines possèdent des spécificités fonctionnelles.Dans l’ensemble, nos travaux montrent donc que des mutations de TUBB3 sont liées à des formes de MDC et que Tubb3 joue un rôle important dans la migration des neurones pyramidaux chez la souris, notamment par le contrôle des changements morphologiques qui interviennent dans la phase multipolaire. Enfin, nous apportons une nouvelle proposition d’interdépendance entre l’arrêt de migration neuronale et la division des progéniteurs neuronaux dans le développement cortical.

Brain development requires correct tissue patterning and production of appropriate cell types. Transcription factors play essential roles in these processes, regulating the expression of target genes responsible for the specific features of neuronal subtypes. Cell adhesion molecules are key components of developmental processes that control cell sorting, migration, neurite outgrowth/guidance and synaptogenesis. To date, the link between transcription factors and cell adhesion molecules has been considered unidirectional. Here, we demonstrate that ectopic expression of Dbx1 leads to spatiotemporally restricted increased expression of Pcdh8 and cell aggregation, together with changes in neuronal identity. Surprisingly, ectopic Pcdh8 expression also induces Dbx1 expression, as well as a complete reorganisation of apico-basal polarity and dorso-ventral patterning via Notch signalling. Altogether, our work therefore points to cell adhesion molecules as unexpected, yet important, players in the regulation of cell identity and, in particular, Pcdh8 through its bidirectional interaction with the Dbx1 transcription factor.

Cajal-Retzius cells (CRs) are peculiar neurons in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex. They robustly secrete Reln, a glycoprotein essential for the establishment of cortical layers through the control of radial migration. We previously identified Gmnc as a crucial fate determinant for P73+ CR subtypes. In Gmnc−/− mutants, P73+ CRs are initially produced and cover the telencephalic vesicle but undergo massive apoptosis resulting in their complete depletion at mid-corticogenesis. Here, we investigated the consequences of such a CR depletion on dorsal cortex lamination and hippocampal morphogenesis. We found that preplate splitting normally occurs in Gmnc−/− mutants but is followed by defective radial migration arrest in the dorsal cortex, an altered cellular organization in the lateral cortex, aberrant hippocampal CA1 folding and lack of vasculature development in the hippocampal fissure. We then performed conditional Reln deletion in P73+ CRs to evaluate its relative contribution and found that only radial migration defects were recapitulated. We concluded that at mid-corticogenesis, CR-derived Reln is required for radial migration arrest and additionally identified Reln-independent functions for CRs in the control of hippocampal fissure formation and CA1 folding.

Cajal-Retzius cells (CRs) are a peculiar neuronal type within the developing mammalian cerebral cortex. One of their best documented feature is the robust secretion of Reln, a glycoprotein essential for the establishment of cortical layers through the control of radial migration of glutamatergic neurons. We previously identified Gmnc as a critical fate determinant for P73 ⁺ CRs subtypes from the hem, septum and thalamic eminence. In Gmnc ^-/- mutants, P73 ⁺ CRs are initially produced, cover the telencephalic vesicle but undergo massive apoptosis resulting in their complete depletion at mid-corticogenesis. Here we investigated the consequence of such a CRs depletion on dorsal cortex lamination and hippocampal morphogenesis. We found preplate splitting occurs normally in Gmnc ^-/- mutants but is followed by defective radial migration arrest in the dorsal cortex, altered cellular organization in the lateral cortex, aberrant hippocampal progenitor proliferation resulting in abnormal CA1 folding and lack of vasculature development in the hippocampal fissure. We then performed conditional Reln deletion in P73 ⁺ CRs to evaluate its relative contribution and found that only radial migration defects were recapitulated. We concluded that at mid-corticogenesis, CRs-derived Reln is required for radial migration arrest and additionally identified Reln-independent functions for CRs in the control of hippocampal progenitor proliferation and vessel remodelling.

SUMMARY: Brain development requires correct tissue patterning and production of appropriate cell types. Transcription factors (TFs) play essential roles in these processes, regulating the expression of target genes responsible for neuronal subtypes specific features. Cell adhesion molecules are key components of developmental processes that control cell sorting, migration, neurite outgrowth/guidance and synaptogenesis. To date, the link between TFs and cell adhesion molecules is considered to be unidirectional. Here, we demonstrate that ectopic expression of Dbx1 leads to spatio-temporally restricted increased expression of Pcdh8 and cell aggregation, together with changes in neuronal identity. Surprisingly, Pcdh8 overexpression also induces Dbx1 expression as well as a complete reorganisation of apico-basal polarity and dorso-ventral patterning via Notch signalling. Altogether, our work therefore points to cell adhesion molecules as unexpected, yet important, players in the regulation of cell identity and, in particular, Pcdh8 through its bidirectional interaction with the Dbx1 transcription factor.

SUMMARY: Cajal-Retzius (CR) neurons are key players of cortical development that display a very unique transcriptomic identity. However, little is known about the mechanisms involved in their fate specification. Here we use scRNAseq to reconstruct the differentiation trajectory of hem-derived CR cells (CRs) and unravel the transient expression of a complete gene module previously known to control the cellular process of multiciliogenesis. However, we find that CRs do not undergo centriole amplification or multiciliation. We show that upon genetic disruption of Gmnc , the master regulator of the multiciliation cascade, CRs are initially produced but fail to reach their normal identity and lean towards an aberrant fate resulting in their massive apoptosis. We further dissect the contribution of multiciliation effector genes and identify Trp73 as a key determinant. Finally, we use in utero electroporation to demonstrate that the intrinsic competence of hem progenitors as well as the heterochronic expression of Gmnc prevent centriole amplification in the CR lineage. Our work exemplifies how the co-option of a complete gene module, repurposed to control a completely distinct process, may contribute to the emergence of novel cell identities.

The EuroMRX family cohort consists of about 400 families with non-syndromic and 200 families with syndromic X-linked mental retardation (XLMR). After exclusion of Fragile X (Fra X) syndrome, probands from these families were tested for mutations in the coding sequence of 90 known and candidate XLMR genes. In total, 73 causative mutations were identified in 21 genes. For 42% of the families with obligate female carriers, the mental retardation phenotype could be explained by a mutation. There was no difference between families with (lod score >2) or without (lod score <2) significant linkage to the X chromosome. For families with two to five affected brothers (brother pair=BP families) only 17% of the MR could be explained. This is significantly lower (P=0.0067) than in families with obligate carrier females and indicates that the MR in about 40% (17/42) of the BP families is due to a single genetic defect on the X chromosome. The mutation frequency of XLMR genes in BP families is lower than can be expected on basis of the male to female ratio of patients with MR or observed recurrence risks. This might be explained by genetic risk factors on the X chromosome, resulting in a more complex etiology in a substantial portion of XLMR patients. The EuroMRX effort is the first attempt to unravel the molecular basis of cognitive dysfunction by large-scale approaches in a large patient cohort. Our results show that it is now possible to identify 42% of the genetic defects in non-syndromic and syndromic XLMR families with obligate female carriers.