Giuliana Furci

Soil fungi play major roles in ecosystem functioning and plant resilience to environmental stresses. However, they are often overlooked in ecosystem restoration plans. In the Coastal Range of southern Chile, the endangered conifer Alerce ( Fitzroya cupressoides ) is the second longest-lived tree species on Earth and one of the largest in South America. These Alerce forests are currently facing major threats due to habitat destruction and climate change. Using ITS2 and SSU soil metabarcoding, we characterized soil and mycorrhizal fungal communities in an Alerce forest comprising a millennial tree (the ‘Alerce Abuelo’) estimated to be over 2400 years old. We also compared the performance of reference DNA sequence databases (i.e. MaarjAM, UNITE and EUKARYOME) for the taxonomic identification of mycorrhizal fungi in metabarcoding data. Beneath the Alerce Abuelo, soil fungal richness was 2.25 higher than the mean richness per sample, harboring 361 unique fungal OTUs. Likewise, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal richness was 1.75 times higher than the mean richness per sample. Soil and AM fungal richness positively correlated with diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree biomass, and negatively with available phosphorus, which was the best predictor of fungal community composition. Finally, EUKARYOME detected more mycorrhizal taxa compared to MaarjAM for SSU (AM fungi) and UNITE for ITS2 (ectomycorrhizal fungi). We therefore recommend to carefully evaluate the approaches used for assigning mycorrhizal guilds in comparative studies. Our study illustrates the importance of millennial trees in sustaining fungal diversity in forest soils. By accumulating fungal diversity as they age, large-diameter Alerce trees can act as umbrella species for soil and mycorrhizal fungi, thereby protecting fungal communities for future forest restoration efforts.

Truffles are enclosed, hypogeous fruiting bodies that have evolved hundreds of times across different fungal groups. Truffles are particularly diverse within Pezizales, a large and diverse order of Ascomycota where truffle forms have evolved multiple times. The majority of truffle species are ectomycorrhizal symbionts of trees and rely on animals for dispersal. Because of their hypogeous nature, truffles remain understudied and many new taxa remain to be discovered. Due to their obligate symbiosis with host plants and their dependence on animal dispersal, ectomycorrhizal truffle species often show distinct host associations, are restricted to certain forest types, and have notable biogeographic distribution patterns. Here, we present morphological and phylogenetic evidence in support of two new truffle species associated with Nothofagaceae trees in southern South America, Geomorium nahuelbutense (Geomoriaceae) and Paragalactinia nothofagacearum (Pezizaceae). The closest described relatives of these species form aboveground, apothecial ascomata, suggesting that these taxa are derived from independent evolutionary events leading to the truffle morphology. Paragalactinia nothofagacearum is widespread in northern Patagonia and has been documented as an ectomycorrhizal associate of Lophozonia alpina (= Nothofagus nervosa) seedlings. In contrast, Geomorium nahuelbutense has only been found in a well-preserved coastal forest in Chile toward the northern extent of the range of Nothofagaceae in South America. This is a conservation priority area that has been heavily impacted by fires, deforestation, and other human activities. This species is known only from two modern collections from Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta and one preserved specimen collected by Roland Thaxter near Concepción, Chile, in 1906.

Erected by Garrido in 1988, the genus Austroomphaliaster contains a single species, A. nahuelbutensis, which has not been cited again since its original description. Despite numerous expeditions across the Nothofagus forests, the species remains unlocated, and no morphological or molecular studies of the type have been published ever since. In 2023, an expedition led by the Fungi Foundation aimed to search for this lost species, resulting in the collection of two specimens consistent with the original description. One year later, mycologists from the University of Concepción found the same species a few kilometers from the type locality. A morphological revision of the reference materials, along with a phylogenetic study that included type ITS and LSU sequences, confirmed its identity. Our study places this putatively saprotrophic species within the family Fayodiaceae. Austroomphaliaster nahuelbutensis appears to have a very restricted distribution and should be included in conservation programs.

Societal Impact Statement: Biological samples and their associated information are an essential resource used by scientists, governments, policymakers, practitioners and communities to ensure that biodiversity can be appropriately protected and sustainably used. Yet, considering the enormous task of documenting the vast numbers of as‐yet‐unknown plant and fungal species, greater international coordination for biological collecting and recording is necessary, built on equitable collecting practices and standards. Here, we propose five commitments to accelerate and enhance scientific knowledge of plant and fungal diversity, while increasing collaboration, benefit sharing and efficiency.Summary: Almost all life depends on plants and fungi, making knowledge of their diversity and distribution—primarily derived from biological collections—fundamental to national and international conservation, restoration and sustainable use commitments. However, it is estimated that some 15% of all plant species and over 90% of all fungal species have not yet been scientifically described, hampering our ability to assess and demonstrate the impact of efforts to halt biodiversity loss. In addition, organisations and researchers around the world lack a concerted strategy for increasing complementarity and avoiding overlap in botanical and mycological research, particularly in relation to the collection of specimens. We here present the 2030 Declaration on Scientific Plant and Fungal Collecting, summarising a commitment towards such a necessary strategy. Its components were identified from discussions during and after a series of four workshops and plenary discussions at the 2023 State of the World's Plants and Fungi symposium convened by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and were then consolidated into the present form by the authors. The Declaration was subsequently opened up for endorsement by signatories. Collectively, we agree on a set of five commitments for cataloguing the world's flora and funga, designed to maximise efficiency, facilitate knowledge exchange and promote equitable collaborations: (1) use evidence‐based collection strategies; (2) strengthen local capacity; (3) collaborate across taxa and disciplines; (4) collect for the future; and (5) share the benefits. This Declaration is a first step towards increased global and regional coordination of scientific collecting efforts.

The species-rich porcini mushroom family Boletaceae is a widespread and well-known group of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) mushroom-forming fungi that has eluded intrafamilial phylogenetic resolution despite many attempts using morphological traits and multi-locus molecular datasets. In this study, we present a genome-wide molecular dataset of 1764 single-copy gene families from a global sampling of 418 Boletaceae specimens. The resulting phylogenetic analysis has strong statistical support for most branches of the tree, including the first statistically robust backbone. The enigmatic Phylloboletellus chloephorus from non-ECM Argentinian subtropical forests was recovered as an early diverging lineage within the Boletaceae. Time-calibrated branch lengths estimate that the family first arose in the early- to mid-Cretaceous and underwent a rapid radiation in the Eocene, possibly when the ECM nutritional mode arose with the emergence and diversification of ECM angiosperms. Biogeographic reconstructions reveal a complex history of vicariance and episodic long-distance dispersal correlated with historical geologic events, including Gondwanan origins and cladogenesis patterns that parallel its fragmentation. Ancestral state reconstruction of sporocarp morphological traits predicts that the ancestor of the Boletaceae was lamellate with ornamented basidiospores, contrary to most contemporary “bolete” morphologies. Transition rates indicated that the lamellate hymenophore and sequestrate sporocarp are reversible traits. Together, this study represents the most comprehensively sampled, data-rich molecular phylogeny of the Boletaceae to date, enabling robust inferences of trait evolution and biogeography in the group.

Psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica. Despite a recent surge in interest in these mushrooms due to emerging evidence that psilocybin, the main psychoactive compound, is a promising therapeutic for a variety of mental illnesses, their phylogeny and taxonomy remain substantially incomplete. Moreover, the recent elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster is known for only five species of Psilocybe , four of which belong to only one of two major clades. We set out to improve the phylogeny for Psilocybe using shotgun sequencing of 71 fungarium specimens, including 23 types, and conducting phylogenomic analysis using 2,983 single-copy gene families to generate a fully supported phylogeny. Molecular clock analysis suggests the stem lineage arose ∼66 mya and diversified ∼53 mya. We also show that psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe , with 4–5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms between 40 and 22 mya. Moreover, predicted orthologs of the psilocybin biosynthetic genes revealed two distinct gene orders within the cluster that corresponds to a deep split within the genus, possibly consistent with the independent acquisition of the cluster. This novel insight may predict differences in chemistry between the two major clades of the genus, providing further resources for the development of novel therapeutics.

A series of international sustainability policies currently in negotiation will shape biodiversity conservation for decades to come. However, discussions of current sustainability policy have a huge blind spot: the absence of Fungi , one of the eukaryotic Kingdoms. Wild fungi are a key component of natural ecosystems (e.g., through parasitic symbiosis), maintain soil fertility by decomposing organic matter, and facilitate uptake of water and nutrients through mycorrhizal association with plant roots, enhancing carbon sequestration. Moreover, the harvest, use, and trade of wild fungi are essential economic and cultural activities, supporting livelihoods and providing food and medicinal ingredients. Still, the sustainability of wild fungi use is hard to assess because there is a lack of attention from research, legislation, and society at large. Here, we present a way forward for including wild fungi in international sustainability policy. We layout four key steps to foster a much‐needed policy and societal transformation: acknowledge the existence of Fungi as an independent Kingdom; tailor sustainability policy targets to include Fungi ; implement comprehensive monitoring of wild fungi status and trends; and promote responsible use of wild fungi as a livelihood opportunity in rural areas. These steps can facilitate a transition toward better recognizing, valuing, and conserving the ecosystem services wild fungi provide.