Meenakshi Patel

Background Escitalopram oxalate is a Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class II drug with low aqueous solubility and significant first-pass metabolism, limiting its systemic bioavailability and therapeutic efficiency. Intranasal delivery using a nanoemulsion-based thermosensitive in situ gelling system offers a promising strategy to bypass first-pass metabolism, improve drug solubility, prolong nasal residence time, and facilitate nose-to-brain drug delivery. Objective This study aimed to develop and optimize a nanoemulsion-based in situ gel for the intranasal delivery of escitalopram oxalate to improve drug delivery and antidepressant efficacy. Methods Escitalopram-loaded nanoemulsions were prepared by high-energy emulsification using a hybrid oil phase of arachis oil and Caproyl 90 (1:1), Tween 80 as the surfactant, and PEG 400 as the cosurfactant. Formulations were optimized using a Central Composite Design (CCD) and characterized for droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, drug content, gelation temperature, pH, viscosity, spray characteristics, in vitro drug release, ex vivo nasal permeation, nasal ciliotoxicity, RPMI 2650 cell viability, and pharmacodynamic activity in Wistar rats. Results The optimized formulation exhibited a droplet size of 34.93 nm, PDI of 0.1955, zeta potential of − 38.4 mV, 97% drug content, pH of 6.4 ± 0.93, and a gelation temperature of 34 ± 1 °C. The formulation demonstrated sustained drug release over 8 h, significantly enhanced ex vivo nasal permeation compared with the nanoemulsion alone, uniform spray performance, and an acceptable safety profile in nasal ciliotoxicity and RPMI 2650 cell viability studies. Pharmacodynamic evaluation showed significantly greater reduction in depressive-like behaviours than oral escitalopram solution. Conclusion The optimized nanoemulsion-based in situ gel demonstrated sustained drug release, enhanced nasal permeation, acceptable safety, and improved antidepressant efficacy. These findings indicate that the developed formulation is a promising non-invasive platform for intranasal delivery of escitalopram oxalate with the potential to enhance nose-to-brain delivery for depression therapy.

The aim of this study was to develop and assess an in situ gelling-based throat spray formulation. containing flurbiprofen, designed to transform into a gel upon contact with the mucosal surface of the throat. Oral administration of medications during throat inflammation can be challenging, prompting the need for alternative delivery methods such as throat sprays. Conventional throat sprays are limited by rapid drug clearance due to excessive secretions. In. situ gelling systems aim to address this limitation by forming a protective gel layer upon application, thereby enhancing drug residence time and therapeutic efficacy. This research aimed to evaluate the feasibility, efficacy, and potential advantages of an in situ gelling formulation for delivering flurbiprofen to alleviate throat pain and inflammation. Preliminary studies were performed to select formulation components, and drug-excipient compatibility was assessed using the Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) spectroscopy. Container compatibility studies were also conducted. The formulation was optimized using a 3² full factorial design to study the effects of independent variables (amount of Poloxamer 407 and amount of Carbopol 934) on the dependent variables (gelling temperature, bioadhesion, and t₉₀—time taken for 90% drug release). Formulation batches were evaluated for in situ gelling characteristics, qualitative and quantitative spray properties, and ex vivo drug diffusion. The optimized formulation underwent stability testing. Compatibility studies indicated that flurbiprofen was compatible with selected excipients and containers. Based on these studies, the concentration of Poloxamer 407 and Carbopol 934 was chosen for optimizing the in situ gelling throat spray formulation. The optimized formulation demonstrated prolonged residence time at the application site, potentially enhancing therapeutic efficacy. The developed in situ gelling throat spray formulation of flurbiprofen offers an innovative approach to improving patient compliance and therapeutic outcomes. By extending the duration of drug contact with the throat mucosa, this formulation presents a promising alternative for delivering drugs to treat throat inflammation effectively. However, the present study is limited to in vitro and ex vivo evaluations, and clinical validation is warranted to confirm its therapeutic applicability.

Additive manufacturing, particularly three-dimensional printing (3DP), is rapidly transforming drug formulation and production in pharmaceutical sciences. This review focuses on two prominent 3DP techniques-fused deposition modeling (FDM) and stereolithography (SLA)-for the fabrication of solid oral dosage forms with controlled drug release. FDM offers advantages such as cost-effectiveness and compatibility with pharmaceutical-grade polymers, while SLA provides superior resolution and the ability to create complex, drug-loaded matrices. Despite these promising capabilities, challenges, including material limitations, regulatory hurdles, and the need for process optimization, hinder widespread clinical adoption. Recent advancements in material science and printing technology are beginning to address these issues, paving the way for more reliable and personalized drug delivery systems. This review summarizes the fundamental principles, key advantages, limitations, and ongoing innovations in FDM and SLA for pharmaceutical applications. Future directions include overcoming regulatory barriers, expanding material options, and integrating 3DP into mainstream personalized medicine.