Ibrahim Osewe

Forests play a vital role in supporting local livelihoods by providing resources and services that underpin cultural, economic, and social well-being. In Kenya’s Kakamega rainforest, participatory forest management is challenged by population pressures, yet the impact of ecosystem service (ES) flows on local communities remains insufficiently understood. This study examined how communities perceive and use forest ES and how these perceptions vary across socio-economic groups. We used a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative data (17 key informant interviews, 8 focus group discussions) and quantitative data (surveys of 453 households). Statistical analyses (Kruskal–Wallis, Chi-square, Mann–Whitney U, ANOVA) revealed 20 recognized ES, with firewood identified as the most critical (acknowledged by 86% of respondents). Provisioning ES were mainly used for domestic purposes, particularly by male respondents and individuals aged 36–48. Wealthier households placed greater value on cultural ES and associated them strongly with natural forests (2 out of 4). Significant differences in ES importance, use, and supporting land-use types were observed across wealth, age, and gender groups. These findings highlight the importance of management strategies that incorporate diverse community perspectives and promote the equitable and sustainable use of forest resources.

Introduction: This research explores the perceptions of local forest communities in Kakamega Forest Ecosystem (KFE) regarding forest conditions, associated threats, Ecosystem services (ES) provision, and associated challenges with a focus on socioeconomic differences (wealth categories). Effective forest management is imperative for sustaining ES, but in KFE, threats to the forest and challenges local communities face hinder their provision.Methods: Mixed method research was utilized, with qualitative data collected through Key Informant Interviews (KII), Focus Group Discussions (FGD), and quantitative data gathered through household surveys.Results and discussion: The findings indicated that wealthier households exhibited a positive correlation with perceptions of unchanged ES provision, while poorer households showed a positive correlation with perceptions of decreased ES provision. Local communities generally perceived an improvement in forest conditions across the wealth categories. However, unexpectedly, poorer households associated highly improved forest conditions with decreased ES provision, indicating challenges related to access to ES. In contrast, middle and rich households expressed a positive correlation with perceptions of severely degraded forest conditions. Illegal logging emerged as the most significant threat to KFE, regardless of wealth category, followed by a lack of awareness of conservation efforts, with significant differences in perception across wealth categories. Surprisingly, animal grazing was perceived as a relatively low threat, with significant differences between wealth groups highlighting the importance of land ownership. The allocation of harvesting rights to non-local community members was identified as the most significant challenge faced by the local community, irrespective of wealth. Additionally, the prohibition of maize planting in the Plantation Establishment for Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) emerged as another major challenge across wealth categories, underscoring the importance of PELIS lands for cultivating staple foods. The electric fence was also perceived as a challenge by the local community, with significant differences between rich and poor households, reflecting the greater reliance of poorer households on provisioning ES.Conclusion: This research provides valuable policy insights on community outreach, agricultural crops, harvesting, and the monitoring of participatory forest management (PFM). The findings support more inclusive, sustainable, and equitable management of KFE and other forest ecosystems to enhance the wellbeing and livelihoods of local forest communities.

Forest ecosystems deliver ecosystem services (ESs) that are essential for the well-being of local communities. These services necessitate a clear understanding of their perception among community members in order to facilitate informed and sustainable forest management decisions. This study aimed to explore the relationship between forest ESs and local communities by identifying community preferences for key ESs and examining how socio-economic factors influence this perception. Data was collected through participatory methods, including focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and a household survey involving 453 respondents. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. We identified firewood, rainfall attraction, air quality, and wildlife habitat as the most acknowledged services in their respective ES categories. Land ownership, education level, Community Forest Association membership, and labor migration significantly influenced service recognition. These findings highlight critical areas for intervention, including livelihood enhancement, cultural heritage preservation, and improved community outreach programs. The outcomes of this research are expected to contribute to the sustainable management of forest ecosystems.

The East African region hosts diverse forest ecosystems, such as woodlands, highland forests, and coastal mangrove forests. These ecosystems are crucial for biodiversity and support various plant and animal species. They provide essential resources, benefiting livelihoods directly and indirectly. Examining regional and global variations in forest ecosystem valuation, especially regarding livelihood benefits, is crucial for sustainable resource management aligned with forest-based climate solutions. The aim of this review is to assess how regional contextual factors and global trends impact the valuation of ecosystem services (ES) in East Africa, with two main objectives (1) to identify the most evaluated ES in East Africa and (2) to identify the preferred ES valuation methods and approaches applied in East Africa. Data from the Web of Science/Clarivate platform was used in the systematic review process using the Reporting standard for Systematic Evidence Syntheses to retrieve and analyse 222 articles. The ES were categorized using the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework and the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services in order to create a review database. Provisioning services i.e., wood biomass and food production were the most assessed at 55%, followed by 30% regulating services i.e., carbon storage, 8.6% support services i.e., habitat and 6.4% cultural services i.e., ecotourism which reflected communities’ direct reliance on forest resources. The preferred direct ES valuation techniques included market price at 14.9% for assessing provisioning services and travel cost methods at 10.4% for cultural services. Amongst the indirect ES valuation techniques, remote sensing at 14.7% were preferred as they proved efficient for large and remote tropical forest areas. Participatory methods such as interviews at 11.8% were also preferred because they offer holistic perspectives on community priorities. This review provides spatial context on the regional priorities of ES valuation which is vital for safeguarding natural resources for future generations.

The potential for accelerate loss of ecosystem services exists when the livelihood of the rural poor is heavily reliant on local ecosystems. For an improvement in livelihood of the rural poor there is need for assessment of key elements of the livelihood framework. This is especially important to Kakamega forest, the last remaining tropical rainforest in Kenya. This paper is a comprehensive literature review aimed at identifyed the research gaps in the area of the relationships between local communities and Kakamega forest ecosystem services. We derived the 42 case studies using ROSES framework and used descriptive statistics to analysis the data set. 93% of the case studies analyse provisional ecosystem, 83% cultural, 55% regulating and 31% supporting ecosystem. We identified r research gaps in our interest area. Most used research methodology is the participatory rural methods which involved interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussion. The identified research gaps will enable us to develop tools that can be used to assess the livelihood improvement of local forest communities in Kakamega. The comprehensive review is also useful for planning the research in other parts of Kenya and beyond, in order to improve livelihoods of local forest communities.

The concept of payments for ecosystem services (PES) has been identified as a promising mechanism for use in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, with several potential advantages and benefits, including the ability to raise new funding for landscape management, increase the efficiency of conservation approaches, secure ecosystem services (ES), and benefit poor rural communities. Starting from understanding the complex relationship between human dependence on natural resources and the environment, this paper aims to determine the degree to which the various criteria affect the success of PES that involve forests. Primary data were collected using a mixed questionnaire that was sent to institutions that had implemented PES schemes in the region and 25 case studies of PES implemented in the region from various publications were used for the secondary data. The data were mainly analyzed using comparative analysis. The results indicated that PES success is higher when bundled ES are considered, financing is medium- to long-term, implementation is at the regional level, combined transaction types (cash and in-kind) are used, and both private buyers and public sellers are involved. This paper provides a good benchmark for decision makers on PES performance and the model presented may serve as one of the tools for improving livelihoods and ensuring the achievement of sustainable development goals.