Evangelia Chrysanthi Kouklari

Background/Objectives: Executive functions (EFs) and Theory of Mind (ToM) are often compromised in children with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). Although evidence highlights the malleability of EF, studies have yet to investigate whether school-based interventions can enhance both cool and hot EF domains and support ToM development in this population. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a structured, classroom-based EF training program in improving cool EF, hot EF, and ToM in children with SLD. Methods: Forty students with SLD (aged 8–10 years) were allocated to an intervention group (n = 24) or a passive control group (n = 16). The program was delivered in small groups during regular school hours over 6–9 weeks (18 sessions). Pre- and post-intervention assessments measured cool EFs (working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition), hot EFs (affective decision-making, delay of gratification), and ToM (false belief understanding, mental state/emotion recognition). Results: The intervention group showed significant within-group improvements in working memory, planning, and cognitive flexibility, whereas the control group showed no significant changes. Between-group comparisons revealed significant effects for working memory, planning, and ToM mental state/emotion recognition, with medium-to-large effect sizes. No significant group differences were found for hot EFs or ToM false belief understanding. Conclusions: These findings suggest that participation in a structured, school-based EF program is associated with selective improvements in specific cool EF components and one aspect of ToM in children with SLD, supporting the potential value of classroom-based interventions for cognitive and socio-cognitive development.

Background/Objectives: Executive functions (EFs) and Theory of Mind (ToM) are often compromised in children with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). Although evidence highlights the malleability of EF, studies have yet to investigate whether school-based interventions can enhance both cool and hot EF domains and support ToM development in this population. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a structured, classroom-based EF training program in improving cool EF, hot EF, and ToM in children with SLD. Methods: Forty students with SLD (aged 8–10 years) were assigned to an intervention group (n = 24) or a passive control group (n = 16). The program was delivered in small groups during regular school hours over 6–9 weeks (18 sessions). Pre- and post-intervention assessments measured cool EFs (working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition), hot EFs (affective decision-making, delay of gratification), and ToM (false belief understanding, mental state/ emotion recognition). Results: The intervention group showed significant within-group improvements in working memory, planning, and cognitive flexibility, whereas the control group showed no significant changes. Between-group comparisons revealed significant effects for working memory, planning, and ToM mental state/ emotion recognition, with medium-to-large effect sizes. No significant group differences were found for hot EFs or ToM false belief understanding. Conclusions: These findings indicate that structured, school-based EF training can improve cool EF components and a key aspect of ToM in children with SLD, supporting the value of classroom-based interventions for strengthening cognitive and socio-cognitive development.

Background: Schizotypal traits are considered to be clinical and cognitive features of Schizotypal Disorder in children (SDc). These traits are also seen in children and adolescents with high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This study examines the influence of schizotypal traits (and their severity) on the capacity of children with ASD to manage emotions, develop relationships with others, and adapt in school and family life. Methods: The Schizotypal traits of 63 children (6–12 years old) with High Functioning ASD were measured by the Melbourne Assessment of Schizotypy in Kids (MASK). Parents and teachers of the participating children completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Teachers’ Report Form (TRF) from the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC). Results: Overall, the results indicated correlations between the MASK scores and problems recorded by teachers, such as Internalizing problems (i.e., Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn/Depressed, and Other problems score) according to TRF and Inappropriate speech scores, according to teacher’s ABC scales. Schizotypal traits impact the social, emotional, and behavioral functioning of children with ASD at home and school environments. Conclusions: The assessment of schizotypal traits in children with ASD provides critical information about a child’s functionality and cognitive development, also leading to the identification of potential cognitive-neuropsychological endophenotypes within ASD with characteristics of both Autism and Schizophrenia spectra. Τhe development of a valid assessment tool is required, as well as the design of targeted interventions to prevent the loss of functionality.

Background: Schizotypal traits are notably prevalent among children diagnosed with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Both conditions commonly exhibit impairments in executive functions (EF), which encompass cool and hot processes. The observed deficits in these EF domains across ASD and schizotypy underscore a compelling need to investigate how their co-occurrence impacts EF. Methods: This study investigated the impact of co-occurring autistic and schizotypal traits on EF in 63 children diagnosed with ASD, aged 7 to 12 years. Participants were assessed using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2 (ADOS-2), the Melbourne Assessment of Schizotypy in Kids (MASK), and a battery of hot and cool EF tests. Results: Correlational analyses revealed a significant association between MASK score and working memory, as well as between ADOS scores and various cool EF components (i.e., working memory, inhibition and planning). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the interaction between ADOS and MASK scores significantly predicted performance on hot EF (i.e., affective decision-making), but not on cool EF tasks. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the co-occurrence of ASD and schizotypal traits may have differential effects on cool and hot EF domains. Understanding how the combination of autistic and schizotypal traits affects cognitive processes may inform tailored interventions and support strategies for individuals presenting with these traits.

Background: Schizotypal traits are notably prevalent among children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Both conditions commonly exhibit impairments in executive functions (EF), which encompass "cool" and "hot" processes. The observed deficits in these EF domains across ASD and schizotypy underscore a compelling need to investigate how their co-occurrence impacts EF. Methods: This study investigated the impact of co-occurring autistic and schizotypal traits on EF in 63 children diagnosed with ASD, aged 7 to 12 years. Participants were assessed using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2 (ADOS-2), the Melbourne Assessment of Schizotypy in Kids (MASK), and a battery of hot and cool EF tests. Results: Correlational analyses revealed a significant association between MASK score and working memory, as well as between ADOS scores and various cool EF components (i.e., working memory, inhibition & planning). Hierar-chical regression analyses showed that the interaction between ADOS and MASK scores signifi-cantly predicted performance on hot EF (i.e., affective decision-making), but not on cool EF tasks. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the co-occurrence of ASD and schizotypal traits may have differential effects on cool and hot EF domains. Understanding how the combination of autistic and schizotypal traits affects cognitive processes may inform tailored interventions and support strategies for individuals presenting with these traits.

Schizotypal traits are considered to be clinical and cognitive features of Schizotypal Disorder in children (SDc). These traits are also seen in children and adolescents with high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This study examines the influence of schizotypal traits (and their se-verity) on the capacity of children with ASD to manage emotions, develop relationships with others and adapt in school and family life. Methods: The Schizotypal traits of 63 children (6-12 years old) with High Functioning ASD were measured by the Melbourne Assessment of Schizotypy in Kids (MASK). Parents and teachers of the participating children completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Teachers' Report Form (TRF) from the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC). Results: Overall, the results indi-cated significant correlations between the MASK scores and problems recorded by teachers, such as Internalizing problems (i.e., Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn/Depressed, & Other problems score) according to TRF and Inappropriate speech score, according to teacher’s ABC scales. Schizotypal traits impact the social, emotional, and behavioral functioning of children with ASD at home and school environment. Conclusions: The assessment of schizotypal traits in children with ASD provides critical information about a child’s functionality and cognitive development, also leading to identification of potential cognitive - neuropsychological endophenotype within ASD with characteristics of both Autism and Schizophrenia spectra. Τhe development of a valid assessment tool is required, as well as the design of targeted interventions to prevent the loss of functionality.

Executive function (EF) in specific learning disorders (SLD) has been investigated using mainly cool EF tasks, whilst less is known about hot EF and theory of mind (ToM) in this population. The aim of this study was to examine group differences in hot and cool EF and ToM in school-aged children with SLD relative to typically developing peers. It also attempted to investigate whether EF measures are significant predictors of ToM in SLD and typical development. Cross-sectional data were collected from 135 school-aged children with and without SLD (8-10 years old), tested on measures of cool & hot EF and ToM. Significant group differences were observed in EFs inhibition (p= .04), working memory (p= .04) and delay of gratification (p < .001), as well as ToM mental state/emotion recognition (p = .019). Inhibition and planning contributed to 22% of the explained variance of ToM mental state/emotion recognition, but not false belief overall. Results suggest that cool EF may be a crucial predictor of ToM in children with and without SLD. Finally, stepwise logistic regression analysis identified specific hot EF and ToM measures contributing to group differentiation, specifically delay of gratification (odds ratio=.995, 95% CI [.993-.998]) and mental state/emotion recognition (odds ratio= .89, 95% CI [.796-.995]). This study contributes to our understanding of cognitive deficits and socio-cognitive impairment in children with SLD, which hold promise for informing interventions aimed at addressing these cognitive challenges.

Developmental executive function (EF) theories have proposed distinct domains of EF (cool and hot) but the EF development in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been assessed mainly with cool EF measures. Little is known regarding the development of hot EF in ASD. EF is suggested to strongly associate to theory of mind (ToM) in typical development but the correlation between hot EF and ToM is understudied in ASD. The current study was aimed at investigating the cross-sectional developmental changes of cool and hot EF in middle childhood and adolescence and their association to ToM in ASD. Eighty-two children and adolescents (7–16 years) were assessed with measures of cool EF (inhibition, working memory, planning, and cognitive flexibility), hot EF (affective decision-making and delay discounting), and ToM (2nd-order false belief and ignorance; mental state/emotion recognition). Our results showed that the trajectories of all cool EF presented linear age-related improvements in ASD. In terms of hot EF, trajectories demonstrated non-linear functions of age for affective decision-making and delay discounting. Both EF domains were found to associate with ToM over and above age, while hot EF associated with ToM over and above cool EF as well. The investigation of the developmental trajectories of cool and hot EF may help define potential cognitive phenotypes across age within ASD.