Madhav Paudel

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a transboundary and zoonotic viral disease affecting poultry and wild birds in many countries worldwide. Globally, HPAI outbreaks have led to the death or culling of hundreds of millions of birds over the past two decades and have caused nearly 1000 confirmed human H5N1 infections, with a case fatality rate of approximately 50%. Asia and Europe remain among the most affected regions, with recurrent outbreaks linked to intensive poultry production, live bird markets, and migratory bird pathways. In Nepal, HPAI has been reported since 2009, with more than 320 outbreaks recorded and over 2.7 million birds lost, alongside one confirmed human fatality. Control measures rely largely on stamping out, movement restrictions, and surveillance; however, gaps in farm-level biosecurity, informal cross-border poultry trade, and limited vaccination use continue to sustain vulnerability. Strengthened multisectoral coordination under a One Health framework, integrating veterinary and public health surveillance, molecular monitoring, community awareness, and risk-based biosecurity enforcement, is essential to reduce the impact of HPAI and mitigate future zoonotic and pandemic risks.

Food safety presents a global challenge, contributing to 600 million cases of foodborne diseases and 420,000 fatalities annually worldwide. In developing countries, such as Nepal, addressing food safety is particularly intricate and arduous because of the prevalent issues of food insecurity, poverty, illiteracy, and regulatory hurdles. The objectives of this comprehensive review are to evaluate the prevalent foodborne and waterborne illnesses, examine the existing regulations and institutional frameworks, and identify the challenges associated with food safety in Nepal. Additionally, this review aims to propose strategies to enhance food safety measures in the country. An electronic search was conducted using relevant keywords to include articles and literature pertinent to the topic. Common foodborne illnesses in Nepal include cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, worm infections, and poisoning from mushrooms, heavy metals, and pesticides. While existing rules, regulations, and government infrastructure exist, they often face limitations in effectively addressing these multifaceted challenges. Food safety in developing countries, such as Nepal, faces several challenges, including inadequate regulatory frameworks, limited surveillance and monitoring, rural–urban disparities, and high incidences of foodborne illness. Additional issues stem from weak law enforcement, poor food safety practices, limited infrastructure, informal sector challenges, cross‐border trade, limited access to clean water, and the impacts of climate change. A multisectoral One Health approach involving collaboration among government agencies, food industry stakeholders, consumers, and civil society organizations is imperative to enhance food safety in developing countries such as Nepal.

Aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by fungi, pose significant health risks, especially to children and elderly individuals. In developing countries such as Nepal, the tropical climate promotes fungal growth, leading to elevated levels of AF in animal feed and milk. In this study, we aimed to investigate the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in dairy milk from the Kathmandu District and to assess husbandry practices contributing to contamination. We collected 84 milk samples, including raw milk from farms, retailers’ milk, and packet milk, and analyzed them using the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) technique. We also interviewed farmers to gather information on feeding and storage practices. All the collected milk samples were contaminated with AFM1, with 97.6% of the samples exceeding the European Union (EU) maximum permissible limit of 50 ppt (0.05 μg/kg). The majority (98.5%) of the farms included paddy straw, and all farms (100%) included concentrate in their feed regimens. Only half (52%) of the farms had proper storage facilities. Straw was mostly stored in sacks outdoors or left open in a shed, while concentrates were stored in a closed room or shed. This study reveals very high levels of AFM1 contamination in the milk samples, presenting a serious public health issue, and recommends comprehensive surveillance and further investigations across the country, especially given the limited research and literature available.

Aflatoxins (AF), secondary metabolites produced by fungi, pose significant health risks, especially to children and adults. In developing countries like Nepal, the tropical climate promotes fungal growth, leading to high levels of AF in animal feed and milk. In this study, we investigated the incidence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in 84 milk samples collected from the Kathmandu district using the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) technique. We also interviewed farmers to gather information on feeding and storage practices. . All the collected milk samples were contaminated with AFM1, with 97.6% of the samples exceeding the European Union (EU) maximum permissible limit of 50 ppt. The majority (98.5%) of the farms included paddy straw, and all farms (100%) included concentrate in their feed regimen. Only half (52%) of the farms had proper storage facilities. Straw was mostly stored in sacks outdoors or left open in a shed, while concentrates were stored in a closed room or shed. The study reports very high contamination levels of AFM1 in the milk samples, presenting a serious public health issue, and recommends comprehensive surveillance and further investigation across the country, especially given the limited research and literature available.

Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) measures the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibits in-vitro growth of microorganisms. Canine pyometra is a frequently occurring reproductive disorder where reliable antibiotics along with surgical excision of uterus predicts better prognosis. Scarce literature is available to facilitate proper antibiotic selection to avoid septicemia in clinical cases. The present study was conducted to determine sensitivity and potency of selected antibacterials based on MIC values against bacterial isolates obtained from Canine Pyometra in Kathmandu district, Nepal by Agar Dilution method. Isolates obtained from 63 intra-uterine samples after ovariohysterectomy were Enterococcus spp (n=41), Klebsiella spp. (n=7), Staphylococcus spp. (n=11) and Streptococcus spp. (n=4). Enrofloxacin and Amikacin were found highly sensitive (0% resistance) with a null hypothesis of resistance to all bacterial isolates and were significantly more potent than other antibacterials tested (pEnterococcus spp. (75.61%) and completely resistant to other bacterial species tested (100%). Comparative results on sensitivity and potency in the study revealed Enrofloxacin and Amikacin to be better antibacterial of choice in pyometra innervation in in-vitro setting. Further clinical trials considering other equally important variables along with MIC should be conducted to predict actual clinical efficacy of antibacterials during therapeutic management of canine pyometra in Nepal.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) is a contagious disease caused by Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV), which significantly impacts cattle health and productivity, leading to substantial economic losses for farmers. The Rupandehi district in Nepal, which shares an open border with India, is particularly vulnerable to the introduction and spread of BVD. Consequently, the objective of this research was to examine the prevalence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) infections and the associated risk factors that contribute to it in the Rupandehi district of Nepal. A two-phase random sampling method was used, where a total of 92 blood samples were obtained from female cattle from Devdaha, Sainamaina, Tilottama, and Suddhodhan Municipality. Serological testing using ID-Screen® BVD p80 Antibody Competition ELISA revealed that 10 samples (10.86%) tested positive for BVDV infection. Cattle aged over 5 years exhibited a higher seroprevalence rate in comparison to other age groups of 3-5 years and < 3 years. Notably, Holstein (26.7%) and Holstein cross (15.4%) cattle exhibited a significantly higher prevalence compared to jersey, jersey cross, and indigenous cattle (p<0.05). None of the assessed risk factors, including repeat breeding (infertility), history of abortion, history of retained placenta, diarrhea, and neonatal death, were found to be statistically significant in relation to the seroprevalence. The findings of this study indicate a comparatively higher seroprevalence rate than previous studies conducted in Nepal. Furthermore, the farmers of the affected herds displayed a lack of awareness regarding BVD and its presence on their farms. These results emphasize the urgent need for the relevant authorities to recognize BVD as a serious issue and take necessary nationwide measures for its control and eradication. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 11(3): 128-134

The dairy sector in Nepal has a high potential for growth, but unfortunately, its progress is impeded by diseases such as mastitis. The purpose of the current investigation was to identify the predominant bacterial species in mastitis-affected cattle milk and to ascertain the most efficacious antibacterial treatment against the bacterial isolates. The study was conducted from 17th August 2022 to 12th February 2023 in lactating cattle of the Kirtipur municipality and Chandragiri municipality of Kathmandu district, Nepal. A total of 640 milk samples from 160 cattle were collected randomly from cattle farms of Kirtipur and Chandragiri municipality of Kathmandu district. Initial screening for mastitis was conducted on collection sites by the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and further bacterial isolation and identification were carried out at the Central Veterinary Laboratory using standard bacterial techniques and the antibiogram were evaluated based on CLSI guidelines. Among 640 samples collected from 160 cattle, 3.91% (25/640) tested CMT-positive at the individual quarter level, whereas the prevalence at the cow level was 15.62% (25/160). The major bacterial species isolated, in subsequent culture of CMT positive samples, were Staphylococcus spp. (10, 40%), E. coli (6, 24%), Streptococcus spp. (5, 20%), Enterococcus spp. (2, 8%), Bacillus spp. (1, 4%), and Klebsiella spp. (1, 4%).. Antibiogram study reveals that major gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., and Bacillus spp. were highly sensitive to Ampicillin, Florfenicol, and Gentamicin while the major gram-negative bacteria, E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. were highly sensitive to Florfenicol, Gentamicin, Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole and Ceftriaxone. Hence, early diagnosis and careful monitoring of antimicrobial susceptibility before therapeutic intervention are essential to prevent high economic losses due to mastitis and to mitigate the potential risk of antimicrobial resistance in the livestock population.