Muhammad Abid Mustafa

Nanogels have become significant in biomedical science research due to various unique characteristics. Hydrogels are three-dimensional crosslinked polymer networks that swell by absorbing aqueous solvents. These polymeric networks with sizes from nanometers to micrometres incorporate features of both hydrogels and nanoparticles, exhibiting high efficiency in drug delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensing. The synthesis process involves the chemical and physical crosslinking process, and the nanoparticles can be incorporated either during gelation or in situ. The resulting hydrogel nanoparticle composites exhibit high drug encapsulation capacity, adjustable swelling behaviour, biocompatibility, and responsiveness to stimuli like pH, temperature, and enzymes. They are of uniform size and less toxic, ideal for controlled and targeted drug delivery, and improved therapeutic effectiveness. Newer developments have highlighted its applications in cancer therapy, cardiovascular treatment, wound healing, and neurodegenerative disease management. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the types of nanogel, the development process and wide-ranging applications, along with insights into future developments in this promising field. Peer Review History: Received 6 July 2024; Reviewed 11 September 2024; Accepted 19 October; Available online 15 November 2024 Academic Editor: Dr. Tamer Elhabibi, Suez Canal University, Egypt, tamer_hassan@pharm.suez.edu.eg Average Peer review marks at initial stage: 6.0/10 Average Peer review marks at publication stage: 7.5/10 Reviewers: Dr. Mohsen Ali Al-Hamzi, Thamar University, Factuality of Dentistry, Yemen. mohsenalhamzi@gmail.com Md. Monirul Islam, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Northern University Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. monirul.islam@nub.ac.bd

Drug delivery systems are developed to maximize drug efficacy and minimize side effects. As drug delivery technologies improve, the drug becomes safer and more comfortable for patients to use. The study on advanced drug delivery systems aims to increase patient compliance, decrease adverse effects, and improve treatment efficacy. Furthermore, the goal of these systems is to deliver drugs to particular body tissues or cells in a targeted manner, which should enhance treatment outcomes. During the last seven decades, extraordinary progress has been made in drug delivery technologies, such as systems for long-term delivery for months and years, localized delivery, and targeted delivery. In this review, we explain the general principles of several advanced drug delivery systems, their introduction objective, components, mechanism, functioning principle, and application. The implantable polymeric drug delivery system, cardiac pacemaker, prefilled dual chamber device, closed-loop insulin delivery system, hepatic infusion pumps, MEMS devices, inhaled insulin devices, and hydrogel-forming microneedles are among the medical devices that are being discussed in this article as being at the forefront of technological innovation in medicine. For a variety of medical diseases, these devices provide minimally invasive procedures, real-time monitoring, and more accurate drug delivery. The scope of medical treatment and monitoring procedures is changing due to the integration of cutting-edge materials and technology. By increasing convenience, decreasing adverse effects, and increasing efficacy, these cutting-edge solutions directly help patients. Furthermore, the adoption of advanced drug delivery systems has demonstrated promising results in enhancing patient compliance and treatment outcomes. By increasing the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of pharmaceuticals, these systems have the potential to transform the fields of drug delivery and personalized medicine. However, the field also faces challenges in overcoming physicochemical barriers and biological unknowns. Challenges facing the advanced drug delivery systems industry include complicated formulation requirements, regulatory obstacles, and the need for new technologies to enhance patient outcomes and therapeutic efficacy. Strict intellectual property rules and competition from generic drug manufacturers can also directly hinder the expansion and financial success of businesses in this field. To progress, the field should focus on translatable research ideas, develop realistic goals, and most importantly, diversify technologies. This emphasis on diversity will inspire new ideas and approaches, leading to the development of more effective, patient-friendly drug delivery systems.

Objective: Conventional dosage forms may not be suitable for all patients, especially those facing difficulty with swallowing, which results in reduced adherence to medication, impacting treatment outcomes. This study aimed to formulate and characterize metoclopramide lozenges using the quality-by-design approach to provide a patient-friendly alternative. Materials and Method: Formulations were optimized using response surface methodology and a Design Expert, focusing on Metoclopramide, Citric Acid, and Carboxymethyl Cellulose, with hardness and dissolution as primary response variables. The experimental design involved 20 runs, six replications of the central point, and a quadratic model for improved model fitting, with adjustments made through transformation and numerical hill-climbing algorithms. Results and Discussion: Formulations of metoclopramide lozenges were obtained through a systematic quality-by-design approach. Using numerical optimization, the formulation with the highest desirability score of 1.00 was selected, yielding a hardness of 14.55 kg and a dissolution time of 1.25 minutes. The optimal coded values were 1.53223 grams for Metoclopramide (A), 4.84302 grams for Citric acid (B), and 18.5048 grams for Carboxymethyl cellulose (C). The optimized formulation was subjected to in vitro testing to validate its performance, yielding a hardness ranging from 13.98 to 15.00 kg/cm2 and a dissolution time ranging from 1.11 to 2.23 minutes. The effectiveness of the QbD approach was confirmed as outcomes closely aligned with the targeted responses. Conclusions: The Quality by Design approach was found effective in optimizing the formulation of metoclopramide lozenges. Using the Design of Expert and Response Surface Methodology, an optimized formulation was obtained with the desired hardness and dissolution rate. Peer Review History: Received 26 April 2024; Revised 4 May 2024; Accepted 28 June; Available online 15 July 2024 Academic Editor: Dr. DANIYAN Oluwatoyin Michael, Obafemi Awolowo University, ILE-IFE, Nigeria, toyinpharm@gmail.com Average Peer review marks at initial stage: 5.5/10 Average Peer review marks at publication stage: 7.0/10 Reviewers: Dr. A.A. Mgbahurike, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria, amaka_mgbahurike@yahoo.com Dr. Hatem Sameir Abbas, Al-Azhar University, Egypt, hsam8406@yahoo.com

Novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) are revolutionizing treatment by leveraging progressive technologies to deliver drugs precisely to their targets within the body. This targeted approach enhances therapeutic efficacy while minimizing unwanted side effects. This review delves into the various techniques employed for developing and characterizing NDDS. We focus on the critical role of characterization, encompassing both pre- and post-formulation stages. Pre-formulation techniques explored include physicochemical properties (melting point, solubility, etc.) spectroscopic analysis (UV, FTIR), thermal analysis (DSC, TGA), and powder characterization (XRD, polarized microscopy). In addition, post-formulation methods such as NMR spectrometry, atomic force microscopy, and in vitro drug release investigations are covered. By comprehensively characterizing these systems, researchers can optimize their design and formulation, ultimately leading to improved patient outcomes and encouraging improvements in the study and development of pharmaceuticals.

Nanoemulsions are stable liquid-in-liquid dispersions with large surface areas, strong stability, optical transparency, and adaptable rheology. These submicron-sized emulsions are being studied for drug delivery and targeting in cosmetics, diagnostics, drug therapies, and biotechnologies. This review explores various techniques for developing and characterizing nanoemulsions, their common formulations, merits, demerits, and current and future applications due to their unique structures and chemistries. The study emphasizes the importance of ideal formulations for nano-droplet systems, including droplet size, solubilization, colloidal stability, and optical and rheological characteristics.

Introduction: Tuberculosis is an infectious disease with high rates of infection and mortality throughout the world, but its spread is greater in developing countries, and its control is difficult. It is known that the most common side reaction of drug treatment for tuberculosis is hepatotoxicity resulting from the drugs, which negatively affects adherence to treatment as a result of patients not continuing to use it. Objective:This study aimed to determine the extent of hepatotoxicity as a result of drug treatment for tuberculosis. Methods: The study is a cross-sectional study conducted on TB patients undergoing TB treatment in a general hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan. A data collection form was used to obtain demographic and treatment data. The hepatotoxicity of TB drug therapy was evaluated by performing liver function tests (LFTs).Study duration was of 4 months. Results: The study showed that out of 100 tuberculosis patients, 55 patients were hepatotoxic. Hepatotoxic population includes 26% males and 29% females including almost 10% children either male or female. The maximun hepatotoxicity was observed in the patients undergoing combination therapy. Around 3-5 % patients showed that the Serum-GlutamicPyruvic-Transaminase (SGPT) values more than 2 times of their normal values. While other 50% showed hepatotoxicity 1-2 times of their normal values. Most of the patients found were in the age group ranging from 35-60 years. The main drugs used in tuberculosis treatment were: Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide, Ethambutal. Conclusion:The rate of hepatotoxicity in TB patients on anti-TB treatment was high. The current study concluded that the more we move towards a greater number of drugs in combination, the greater the extent and chance of hepatotoxicity. The combination of three anti-tuberculosis drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide) resulted in maximum hepatotoxicity. Peer Review History: Received: 21 August 2023; Revised: 18 September; Accepted: 19 October, Available online: 15 November 2023 Academic Editor: Dr. Marwa A. A. Fayed, University of Sadat City, Egypt, maafayed@gmail.com Received file: Reviewer's Comments: Average Peer review marks at initial stage: 6.0/10 Average Peer review marks at publication stage: 7.0/10 Reviewers: Dr. Owanaro Peter, Nigeria, Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. owonaropeter@gmail.com Prof. Hassan A.H. Al-Shamahy, Sana'a University, Yemen, shmahe@yemen.net.ye Dr. Sheikh Abdul Khaliq, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan, drwadhsheikh1974@gmail.com

Muhammad Abid Mustafa1*, Nasira Saif ur Rehman1, Asad Majeed Khan1, Mudassar Munir2, Kaynat Azhar2, Fatima Ahmed2, Ayesha Imran2, Minahil Arif2, Muhammad Usama Latif2, Ambreen Ijaz2, Mohammad Usman Imtiaz2 and Muhammad Sajid Mustafa3 Author informationArticle notesCopyright and License informationPDFCitations Corresponding author. Correspondence: Dr. Muhammad Abid Mustafa Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lahore University of Biological and Applied