Alessandro Lazzara

Several scholars and ancient sources highlight the communicative functions of images in the ancient Roman architecture, including plant-based motifs. Among them, Corinthian capitals, usually considered overall a stylistic character, are associated mostly with the Acanthus leaves. Indeed, further neglected plants still need a more precise identification. This paper aims to carry out a systematic analysis of their botanical composition and of the potential encoded symbolic messages. Through an analysis of 83 Roman capitals, overall Corinthian (52), Corinthianising (23), and Composite (8), dated between the II century BCE to the IV century CE from the territory of Rome, we recognised 40 different plant motifs (35 of them identified), resulting in 29 families, 30 genera and 27 species. Their bottom level is characterised by few variations of botanical species, where the recurrence of Acanthu s, representing the idea of Rebirth, is the primary key to the style. The presence of emerging spikelets of Triticum sp., previously unmentioned, seems to have a recurrent and highly relevant augural role of fertility. We cannot neglect some zoomorphic associations, such as the Acanthus leaves that, at distance, show the apotropaic effect of lions’ mouths. The middle level shows the main variability of species, often hosting the presence of Asplenium scolopendrium , having an augural value. The re-flowering flowers motif, with flowers that metamorphose into other plants, recurs in Corinthianising and Composite typologies, suggesting a never-ending life. The apical level, through the abacus plants and snakes, primarily conveys the ideas of strength, light, and salvation. Graphic abstract

The plant’s representation had, in the past, a great symbolic relevance, which is now often neglected. The presence and significance of mullein (Verbascum sp.) in Euro-Mediterranean art have been investigated, but despite its iconographic importance, a wide analysis of its value and recurrence is lacking. Through a survey of over 5000 artworks, from ancient to modern age, combining digital museum collections and fieldwork, we identified about hundred depictions of Verbascum, 64 of which are here reported for the first time. Based on key morphological traits, V. thapsus and V. sinuatum emerged as the most frequently depicted species, particularly through their basal leaves and inflorescences (especially in modern ages). In archaeological contexts, Verbascum overall appears as a symbol of Athena/Minerva, bringers of light, and in funerary settings, such as Apulian vases and tombs, symbolizing new life in the afterlife. After its absence during the Middle Ages, the plant reappeared in the Renaissance, carefully portrayed by notable artists, such as Leonardo, Correggio, Bellini, Dürer, Caravaggio, and Bernini. During this period, mullein is often associated with Christ and St. John the Baptist, reinforcing its symbolism of light and spiritual elevation. Other representations also occurred in the subsequent centuries, but in a renovated vision of the natural world.

The frescoed Annunziata Oratory chapel in Riofreddo (Italy), a unique testimony to the pontificate of Martin V, sheds light on the trade routes of Ninfa in the first half of the 15th century. Despite having undergone several restorations in the past (the most recent in the 2010s), the Oratory presents serious conservation issues. At first glance, there are no evident signs of biological colonization; rather, the most obvious damage is attributed to detachments and saline efflorescence. Biological colonization at several points was identified using various diagnostic field and laboratory techniques such as ATPase point analysis, field stereoscopy in visible and UV light, culture-based and molecular approaches, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM analysis, biological colonization at several points was identified. The characterization of salt efflorescence was carried out using ion chromatography analysis. The presence of bacteria, fungi and algae, which are also linked to saline efflorescence, was observed. A clear correlation between the biological colonization and salt efflorescence composition was highlighted by our results, as well as the potential sources of microorganisms and salts via the capillary rise of groundwater. This early diagnostic approach regarding the presence of lithobionts and salt efflorescence demonstrates the complex interplay between environmental factors and microbial colonization, which can lead to biodeterioration processes.

Plant motifs had a significant role in ancient cultures, with decorative, artistic, and communicative values. However, little knowledge exists of the botanical composition of festoons, widely used in Greek-Roman art. We analysed 81 festoons, exclusively from sculpture artworks, collected from 13 museums and archaeological sites in Rome (1st century BC–3rd century AD). Using iconographic sources and previous data, we identified the represented species and analysed their abundance and composition using statistical methods (Cluster Analysis, Principal Components Analysis) and diversity indexes (Shannon and Evenness). We documented 3081 botanical elements, identifying 30 taxa, in which fruits with leaves (45%) or alone (10%) represented the most common ones. Laurus nobilis and Quercus cfr. robur were the most frequently depicted species, followed by “pomes” (Pyrus, Malus, Cydonia), Vitis vinifera, Punica granatum, and Ficus carica. Festoons with one or two species can be easily distinguished from those with multiple species, often arranged with figs or vine branches at the ends, with symbolic aims related to fertility, rebirth, and abundance values. A balanced botanical composition also exists, with flowers typically in the middle and a species distribution that is not casual. The results enriched our comprehension of ancient Roman society, considering funerary and celebrative events.

The art of the Achaemenid Empire flourished in Ancient Persia from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, and featured stone-carved monumental structures adorned with recurring zoological and floral patterns. Such representations clearly had a symbolic meaning intimately connected to religious expression and the will of deities. Considering the lack of any comprehensive analysis of botanical features, we investigate the recurring plant patterns and the variety of plants depicted. An analysis of the documentation referring mainly to monuments in the two main capitals of Darius I, Persepolis and Susa, showed the presence of certain repetitive elements, such as the so-called rosettes (composed variously of Asteraceae capitula and Nymphaea flowers), palms (Phoenix dactylifera, the tree of life), pines, flowers or bunches and metamorphic elements. Some plants are described in this paper for the first time in the context of Persian iconography, such as Mandragora officinalis in offering scenes as a symbol of fertility and protection against evil spirits, Pinus brutia var. eldarica as a symbol of immortality and elevation to the gods, and the capitula of Matricaria/Leucanthemum as solar symbols. Further interesting elements include cf. Myrtus communis in some crowns and probably cf. Ephedra sp. in offering scenes. Achaemenid art was deeply influenced by the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia with its great attention to nature as well as by the nearby civilizations of the Mesopotamian area and Egypt. Most elements were also associated with psychotropic or medicinal attributes, which contributed to their position as symbols of power.