Andrea Casella

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of sport-specific training in virtual reality (VR) on perceptual and cognitive abilities and their neurophysiological correlates in young soccer players. Twenty-four young semi-elite soccer athletes were assigned to an experimental (Exp) or control (Ctr) group. Participants' cognitive functions were tested before and after an 8-week standard soccer training using a visuomotor cognitive task during electrophysiological (EEG) recordings. The Exp group in the last 30 minutes of each training session performed the VR training aimed at improving processing speed, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. While the cognitive task allowed to measure response speed and accuracy, the EEG permitted to measure the event-related potential (ERP) evoked by the cognitive task. Results showed that both response speed and accuracy were improved in the Exp group only, and this effect could be explained by increased sensorimotor integration in prefrontal areas indexed by the prefrontal P1 (pP1) component and increased post-perceptual cognitive processing as decision-making in parietal areas indexed by the P3 component. These results support the effectiveness of VR in enhancing cognitive functions, highlighting the technology's potential for innovative training for soccer.

Cognitive‐motor dual‐task (CMDT) training has been widely recognized as an effective method for counteracting age‐related declines in physical and cognitive processes. These benefits were associated with increased activity in the frontal cortex; however, it is unclear at which stage of task processing these effects occur. Here, we tested the effect of CMDT training on predictive brain function in healthy older adults compared to standard motor training. Sixty healthy participants (mean age 73.2 years, range 65–82 years, 41 females, 19 males) were randomly divided into two groups, and all attended five weeks of standard exercise for older people, one hour twice a week. In the experimental group, the last 20′ of the training session were enriched with CMDT exercises using interactive devices. Functional motor performance and a cognitive task, executed during electroencephalographic recording, were assessed before (T0) and after (T1) the training. Motor and cognitive predictive brain functions required by a cognitive task were assessed by measuring the preparatory event‐related potential. Results confirmed the CMDT superiority compared to motor training on both motor and cognitive performance. The effect on frontal cortex activity was confirmed, but we showed that these effects happen during the predictive stage of processing required by a cognitive task. The CMDT training seems to increase both motor and cognitive control over cognitive tasks, resulting in improved mobility and behavioral performance. Results support the view that simultaneous engagement of cognitive and motor brain networks drives functional plasticity in late life. Thus, CMDT represents a pragmatic, neurophysiological grounded strategy for supporting healthy aging.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a single session of Butterfly Tapping (BT), a self-administered form of alternating bilateral stimulation, on emotional reactivity and its neurophysiological correlates. Thirty-two young healthy participants were randomly assigned to an experimental (Exp) or control (Con) group. The Exp group performed a 15-minute session of BT. Emotional reactivity was assessed before and after the stimulation using a detection task with emotional visual stimuli, presented during electroencephalographic (EEG) recording. EEG analyses were conducted using the event-related potential (ERP) method, specifically focusing on the differential amplitude (negative minus neutral) of the Late Positive Potential (LPP), a centro-parietal component associated with sustained processing of emotionally salient stimuli. Results revealed a significant LPP reduction in the Exp group at T1 compared to T0, whereas no change emerged in the Con group. The topographical distribution of the modulation was predominantly central, consistent with models implicating the LPP in higher-order integrative and evaluative processes. These findings provide preliminary neurophysiological evidence that BT may reduce cortical reactivity to negative emotional stimuli in young non-clinical populations, supporting its potential as a simple and accessible strategy capable of modulating affective responsiveness.

The present study examines the impact of a sport-specific training program based on virtual reality (VR) in young semi-elitè soccer players on cognitive performance and on anticipatory brain functions using the event-related potential (ERP) method. In this randomized control trial, the participants were divided into two groups: a control group, which followed a standard soccer training program, and an experimental group, which followed the same training but underwent an additional VR training session once a week. Results indicated that after eight weeks of training, the experimental group only showed a notable enhancement of anticipatory brain activity in the prefrontal cortex as evidenced by a 40% increase in the prefrontal negativity (pN) ERP component. The motor preparatory activity in the premotor cortex indexed by the Bereitschaftspotential (BP) component was comparable between groups before the training and larger in the experimental group after it. Furthermore, the experimental group only showed enhanced cognitive performance improving response speed and accuracy in a discrimination response task. These findings indicate that using VR protocol in conventional soccer training may enhance cognitive anticipatory brain processing underlying top-down cognitive functions. This likely boosted cognitive performance. In conclusion, we confirmed the potential of immersive technologies to facilitate the integration of cognitive training in sports.

Motor and cognitive processes influence each other. Dual‐task studies have shown that walking, in particular, may impact performance during cognitive tasks. However, the existing literature shows inconsistent results; changes in performance have been reported to be sometimes ameliorative, sometimes neutral, and at other times detrimental to both cognitive and motor functions. The present study aims to investigate the effects of walking on the motor and cognitive brain processes that underlie task anticipation during a visual discrimination cognitive task. For this purpose, event‐related potentials were recorded under two conditions: static standing and walking on the treadmill while participants executed a cognitive task. The presence of optic flow was also controlled to assess its effect on realistic walking. The results show that walking enhanced both motor and cognitive preparation processes, improving response speed and accuracy. This effect may suggest that walking during the execution of a visuomotor cognitive task may not interfere with task preparation and even result in increased cortical activation in prefrontal and premotor areas, thereby improving cognitive performance. Furthermore, the presence of optic flow was found to enhance motor preparation and reduce response time, supporting the efficacy of more realistic walking conditions. However, the presence of a flow field also reduced cognitive preparation and accuracy, likely due to the increased cognitive load associated with concurrent visual information. These findings support the “multiple resources theory,” which posits that during dual tasks that do not interfere with each other, the brain can optimize cortical integration and enhance both cognitive and motor resources.

Increasing evidence shows that virtual reality (VR) training is highly effective in cognitive and motor rehabilitation. Another modern form of training is cognitive–motor dual-task training (CMDT), which has been demonstrated to rapidly improve physical and cognitive functions in real environments. This study aims to test whether a VR-based CMDT protocol can be used for motor and cognitive skill enhancement in young, healthy subjects. For this aim, 24 university students participated in a randomized control trial. The experimental group participated in a 5-week virtual reality reaction training (VRRT), performing 30 min sessions once a week. The control group did not receive any training but was tested twice with the same measures and temporal distance as the experimental group. Before and after the intervention, motor, cognitive, and electrophysiological measures were assessed. The results showed that following VRRT, the response time for both physical and cognitive tests was improved by about 14% and 12%, respectively, while the control group did not show significant changes. Moreover, electrophysiological data revealed a significant increase in anticipatory motor readiness in premotor brain areas in the experimental group only; however, cognitive top–down control tended to be increased in prefrontal areas after VRRT. This training protocol in a VR modality seems to be as effective as other CMDT methodologies carried out in a real modality. Still, it has the advantages of being more flexible and more user-friendly compared to standard training. The VRRT’s efficacy on physical and cognitive functions indicates that virtual reality applications can be used by the young population, not only for entertainment purposes but also in the form of cognitive–motor training.

Stimulus-driven actions are preceded by preparatory brain activity that can be expressed by event-related potentials (ERP). Literature on this topic has mainly focused on simple actions, such as the finger keypress, finding activity in frontal, parietal, and occipital areas detectable up to two seconds before the stimulus onset. However, little is known about the preparatory brain activity when the action complexity increases, and specific brain areas designated to achieve movement integration intervene. The main aim of this paper is to identify the time course of preparatory brain activity associated with actions of increasing complexity using ERP analysis and a visuomotor discrimination task. Motor complexity was manipulated by asking nineteen volunteers to provide their response by simply pressing a key or by adding to the keypress arm extensions (reaching) alone, or in combination with a standing step (involving the whole body). Results showed that these actions of increasing levels of complexity appear to be associated with different patterns of preparatory brain activity. Specifically, the simple keypress was characterized by the largest motor excitatory preparation in premotor areas paralleled by the largest prefrontal inhibitory/attentional control. Reaching presented a dominant parietal preparation confirming the role of these integration areas in reaching actions toward a goal. Stepping was characterized by localized activity in the bilateral dorsomedial parieto-occipital areas attributable to sensory readiness, for the approaching stimulus. In conclusion, the brain is able to optimally anticipate any stimulus-driven action modulating the activity in the brain areas specialized in the preparation of that action type.

The benefits of sport activity on cognition and especially on executive function development are well-known, and in recent years, several kinds of cognitive-motor training (CMT) have been proven effective in adults and older people. Less is known about possible CMT benefits in children. This study aims to confirm the positive influence played by CMTs on specific executive functions (planning abilities and visual search) in young soccer players. Twenty-four 10-year-old athletes were recruited and randomly assigned to the experimental (Exp) and control (Con) groups of 12 players. Both groups were trained for 10 weeks, twice a week (90 min per training), following standard soccer training (technical-tactical exercises). The Exp group, during the first training session of the week, in the last 22 min, performed the experimental treatment, which consisted of a psychokinetic CMT. Both groups were examined before and after the ten-week training using the Tower of London and WISC-IV cancellation tests. Results revealed that the Exp group, following treatment, reported significantly better scores than the Con group in all the cognitive measures. We concluded that the proposed CMT is more effective than motor training alone at improving planning abilities and visual search abilities, even in children.